Biology Chapter 11

Chapter 11
DNA Structure, Replication,

and Organization
What is the genetic (hereditary)
material?
• DNA - genetic material of all living organisms
Griffith’s Experiments (1928)
• Observation: A substance derived from killed
infective pneumonia bacteria could transform
noninfective living pneumonia bacteria to the
infective type
• Transformation – process of genetic change

Griffith’s Experiments
Conclusion: Transforming molecule in dead S cells genetically

changed R cells to virulent S form
What is the “transforming molecule”?

Avery’s Experiments (1940)
• What is the transforming molecule in Griffith’s
experiments?
• Used bacteria instead of mice

• Destroyed protein – still had transformation
• Destroyed DNA – NO transformation
 DNA was the transforming molecule

Hershey and Chase’s Experiments
(1952)
• Is DNA or protein the genetic material?
• Used bacteriophage T2
• Used S and 32P

35
• Showed that bacteriophage DNA (not protein)

enters bacterial cells to direct the life cycle of
the virus
Hershey and Chase’s Experiments
Conclusion: DNA is the hereditary molecule

DNA Structure
• Watson and Crick (1953)
• Discovered that a DNA molecule consists of
two polynucleotides chains twisted around
each other into a right-handed double helix
• Each nucleotide of the chains consists of

1. Deoxyribose
2. A phosphate group
3. A base (adenine, thymine, guanine, or
cytosine)
The Double-Helix Model
• Deoxyribose sugars linked by phosphate
groups  sugar-phosphate backbone
• Two strands are held together by base pairs

– Adenine–Thymine
– Guanine–Cytosine
• Each full turn of double helix is 10 base pairs

Nucleotide Subunits of DNA
Sugar-Phosphate backbone
Phosphodiester Bonds
phosphate at 5’ carbon of sugar
Hydroxyl at 3’ carbon of sugar

DNA X-ray Diffraction
Means a helical structure

DNA Double-Helix Model
10 base pairs per turn
Complementary base pairing

How does DNA replicate?
• Semiconservative Replication
• Two strands of parental DNA molecule

unwind
• Each is a template for the synthesis of a

complementary copy
DNA Replication
Semiconservative Replication
One old + one new Old go together Mix of old and new
New go together
Meselson-Stahl Experiment
Does DNA replicate in semiconservatively?

Meselson-Stahl Experiment
Evidence Supports
Result
Conclusion: Results
support
semiconservative
replication
Enzymes of DNA Replication
• Helicase - unwinds the DNA
• Primase - synthesizes RNA primer (starting point for

nucleotide assembly by DNA polymerases)
• DNA polymerases - assemble nucleotides into a

chain (at 3’ end), remove primers, and fill resulting
gaps
• DNA ligase - closes remaining single-chain nicks

Assembling a Complementary
Chain
(5’ to 3’) (3’ to 5’)
DNA
polymerase
Energy
coupling
DNA Polymerase
Enzyme Activities
Enzyme Activities
Assembling Antiparallel Strands
Continuous
Discontinuous
Okazaki fragments
Two Antiparallel Strands
• One template strand runs in a direction allowing new

DNA strand to be made continuously in the direction
of unwinding
• Other template strand is copied in short lengths that

run in the direction opposite to unwinding
– Discontinuous replication produces short lengths
(Okazaki Fragments) that are later linked together
Enzyme Activities
Enzyme Activities
Enzyme Activities
Major Enzymes of DNA
Replication
DNA Synthesis
• Begins at sites that act as replication origins
• Only activated once during S phase
• Proceeds from the origins as two replication

forks moving in opposite directions
Origin of Replication
Replication From Multiple Origins
Telomeres
• End of eukaryotic chromosomes
• Short sequences repeated hundreds to thousands of

times
• Repeats protects against chromosome shortening

during replication
• Telomerase - enzyme that prevents chromosome

shortening by adding telomere repeats
Why do we need telomeres?
Remember:
DNA
polymerase
only adds to
3’ end
Why do we need telomeres?
Mechanisms That Correct
Replication Errors
a. Proofreading depends on the ability of DNA

polymerases to reverse and remove
mismatched bases
b. DNA repair corrects errors that escape

proofreading
Proofreading
• If a replication error causes a base to be
mispaired, DNA polymerase reverses and
removes the most recently added base
• The enzyme then resumes DNA synthesis in

the forward direction
Proofreading by DNA Polymerase
 5’  3’ direction
DNA Repair Mechanisms
• Set of DNA polymerase enzymes:
1. Recognize distorted regions caused by

mispaired base pairs
2. Remove mispaired base region from the newly

synthesized nucleotide chain
3. Resynthesize correctly using original template

chain as a guide
Mismatch Repair

Nuclease
DNA Polymerase
 DNA Ligase
Putting it into perspective
1. What is the hereditary material?
2. What is the structure of DNA?
3. How do we make copies of the DNA to pass

onto next generation?
4. How do we correct errors?
5. How do we organize the DNA?

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Chapter 11

DNA Structure, Replication,

• Transformation – process of genetic change

Conclusion: Transforming molecule in dead S cells genetically

What is the “transforming molecule”?

• Used bacteria instead of mice

 DNA was the transforming molecule

• Used S and 32P

• Showed that bacteriophage DNA (not protein)

Conclusion: DNA is the hereditary molecule

• Each nucleotide of the chains consists of

• Two strands are held together by base pairs

• Each full turn of double helix is 10 base pairs

phosphate at 5’ carbon of sugar

Hydroxyl at 3’ carbon of sugar

Means a helical structure

10 base pairs per turn

Complementary base pairing

• Two strands of parental DNA molecule

• Each is a template for the synthesis of a

Does DNA replicate in semiconservatively?

• Primase - synthesizes RNA primer (starting point for

• DNA polymerases - assemble nucleotides into a

• DNA ligase - closes remaining single-chain nicks

• One template strand runs in a direction allowing new

• Other template strand is copied in short lengths that

• Only activated once during S phase

• Proceeds from the origins as two replication

• Short sequences repeated hundreds to thousands of

• Repeats protects against chromosome shortening

• Telomerase - enzyme that prevents chromosome

a. Proofreading depends on the ability of DNA

b. DNA repair corrects errors that escape

• The enzyme then resumes DNA synthesis in

1. Recognize distorted regions caused by

2. Remove mispaired base region from the newly

3. Resynthesize correctly using original template

2. What is the structure of DNA?

3. How do we make copies of the DNA to pass

4. How do we correct errors?

5. How do we organize the DNA?

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