Earthquake

any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic

waves through Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced when
some form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released,
usually when masses of rock straining against one another suddenly
fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most often along geologic
faults, narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one
another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the
fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust.
 Earthquake Hazards
I. Ground Shaking
 What is Ground shaking?

Ground shaking is a term used to describe the vibration of the ground during an
earthquake. Ground shaking is caused by body waves. As a generalization, the
severity of ground shaking increases as magnitude increases and decreases as
distance from the causative fault increases.

Under normal conditions, a built structure is subject to steady gravitational loads.

However, during an earthquake ground shaking can impose strong lateral loads. If
the structure is not designed to withstand them, the additional lateral loads
associated with seismic shaking can cause it to fail.
 What is Ground shaking?

The second primary earthquake hazard, ground shaking is the result of rapid ground
acceleration. Ground shaking can vary over an area as a result of factors such as
topography, bedrock type and the location and orientation of the faulty rupture.

These all affect the way the seismic waves travel through the ground. If an
earthquake generates enough shaking intensity, built structures can be severely
damaged and cliffs and sloping grounf can be temporarily or permanently
destabilized. In large earthquakes, whole districts can be devastated by the
consequences of ground shaking.
Effects of Ground Shaking

• Any building in the path of these surface waves can lean or tip
over from all movement. The ground shaking may also cause
landslides, mudslides and avalanches on steeper hills, or
mountains, all which can damage buildings and hurt people.
Landslides
Mudslide
Avalanches
Types of Ground Shaking.

Although the physics of seismic waves complex, ground shaking can

be explained in terms of body waves, compressional, or P, and shear,
or S, and surface waves, Rayleigh and love.
 Earthquake Hazards
II. Ground Rupture
Ground Rupture

The vibrations from an earthquake can lead to ground displacement and Surface Rupture.
Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth’s surface along the trace of
the fault, which may be the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes. Ground
requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any likely to break the ground surface
within the structure.
Effects of Ground rupture

Fissure
 Displacement of ground due to faults movement
LIQUEFACTION

What is Liquefaction?

It refers to soil instability and can be caused by various factors such as the inflow
of water beneath the soil or a sudden shock caused by earthquakes or human activities. If
the soil of a particular region suffers from liquefaction, it may become unable to support
the weight of its structures. In that scenario, those structures could suffer severe
damage, or even collapse completely into the ground.

• During liquefaction the water pressure become high enough to counteract

the gravitational pull on the soil particles and effectively float or suspend the particles.

• The soil particle move freely with respect to each other. Due to this the
strength of soil decreases and the ability of a soil deposit to support foundations for
buildings and bridge is reduce.
In addition to buildings, liquefaction can ruin roads, railways, airport
runways, dams and anything else that sits on the ground. It can also cause
damage to below-ground utilities. Liquefaction can cause landslides,
settlements, and eruptions of mud or water from the ground.
Types of Liquefaction

Flow Liquefaction - flow liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the static equilibrium is destroyed
by static or dynamic loads in a soil deposit with low residual strength. It occurs when the static
shears stresses in the soil exceed the shear strength of the liquefied soil.
Types of Liquefaction

Cyclic Mobility - cyclic mobility is a liquefaction phenomenon, triggered by cyclic loading,

occurring in soil deposits with static shear stresses lower than the soil strength.

 Deformation due to cyclic mobility develop incrementally because of static and dynamic stresses
that exist during an earthquake.
Effects of Liquefaction
Loss of Bearing Strength - the ground can liquefy and lose its ability to support the structure.

Lateral Spreading - the ground can slide down very gentle slopes. It is mainly caused by cyclic
mobility. Lateral spreading causes damage to foundations of buildings, pipelines, railway lines and
causes shaking at pile due to increased lateral loads.
Effects of Liquefaction

Sand boil - sand-laden water can be ejected from a buried liquefied layer and erupt at the surface
to form sand volcanoes. The surrounding grounds often fractures and settles.
Effects of Liquefaction

Flow Failures - flow failures are the most catastrophic ground failures
caused by liquefaction. These failures commonly displace large masses of
soil laterally. Flows develop in loose saturated sands or slits on relatively
steep slopes.
Effects of Liquefaction

Ground Oscillation - where the ground is flat or the slope is to gentle to

allow lateral displacement, liquefaction at depth may decouple overlying
soil layers from the underlying ground, allowing the upper soil to oscillate
back and forth and up and down in the form of ground waves. These
oscillations are usually accompanied by opening and closing of fissures
fracture of rigid structures such as pavements and pipelines.

Flotation - Light structure that are buries in the ground (like pipeline sewers
and nearly empty fuel tanks) can float to the surface when they are
surrounded by liquefied soil.
Effects of Liquefaction

Flotation - Light structure that are buries in the ground (like pipeline
sewers and nearly empty fuel tanks) can float to the surface when they are
surrounded by liquefied soil.
Methods to reduce Liquefaction

Avoid susceptible soil - the first possibility is to avoid construction on

liquefaction susceptible soil.

Build resistant structures - it may be possible to make the structure

liquefaction resistant by designing the foundation elements to resist the
effects of liquefaction. Structure that possesses ductility, has the ability to
accommodate large deformations, adjustable supports for correction of
differential settlements.
Effects of Liquefaction

Shallow foundation aspects - it is important that all foundation elements

in a shallow foundation are tied together to make the foundation move or
settle uniformly, thus decreases the amount of shear force induced in the
structural elements resting upon the foundation.
Effects of Liquefaction

Deep foundation aspect - Liquefaction can cause large lateral loads on pile foundations.
Piles driven through a weak, potentially soil layer to a stronger layer not only have to
carry vertical loads form the super structure, but must also be able to resist horizontal
loads and bending moments induced by lateral movements if the weak layer liquefies.
Piles of larger dimensions and/or more reinforcement can achieve sufficient resistance
Effects of Liquefaction

Vibro-compaction - Vibro-compaction involves the use of a vibrating probe that can

penetrate granular soil to depths of over 100 feet. The vibration of the probe cause the
grain structure to collapse thereby densifying the soil surrounding the probe.
Effects of Liquefaction

Dynamic Compaction - densification by dynamic compaction is performed

by dropping a heavy weight of steel or concrete in a grid pattern form
heights of 30 to 100 feet.
Effects of Liquefaction

Compaction grouting - compaction grouting is a technique whereby a

slow-floating water\sand\cement mix is injected into loos sand under high
pressure. Gout does not enter soil but forms a bulb that compacts and
densify the soil by forcing it to occupy less space.
Effects of Liquefaction

Stone column - stone columns are columns of gravel constructed in the

ground. Stone column can be constructed by the vibro-compation method.
In this approach the steel casing is driven into the soil and gravel is filled
in from the top and tamped with a drop hammer as the steel is
successively withdrawn.
What is earthquake induced ground
subsidence?
• Subsidence is lowering of the ground surface occurs
during an earthquake. Land subsidence is a gradual
settling or sudden sinking of the Earth's surface due
to removal or displacement of subsurface earth
materials. Common causes of ground subsidence
during an earthquake include consolidation or failure
of the ground under a foundation, densification of
sand and gravel layers due to the ground shaking and
liquefaction.
 How does land subsidence occur?
• Land subsidence occurs when large amounts of
groundwater have been withdrawn from certain types of
rocks, such as fine-grained sediments. The rock compacts
because the water is partly responsible for holding the
ground up. When the water is withdrawn, the rocks falls in
on itself. You may not notice land subsidence too much
because it can occur over large areas rather than in a small
spot, like a sinkhole.
• To the right is a picture of the San Joaquin Valley
southwest of Mendota in the agricultural area of California.
Years and years of pumping groundwater for irrigation has
caused the land to drop. The top sign shows where the land
surface was back in 1925! Compare that to where Dr. Poland
is standing (1977).
Tsunami
TSUNAMI

What is a tsunami? A tsunami is a series of waves caused by earthquakes or undersea volcanic

eruptions. Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions under the sea. Out in the depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do
not dramatically increase in height. But as the waves travel inland, they
build up to higher and higher heights as the depth of the ocean decreases.
The speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance
from the source of the wave. Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes
over deep waters, only slowing down when reaching shallow waters. While
tsunamis are often referred to as tidal waves, this name is discouraged by
oceanographers because tides have little to do with these giant waves.
TSUNAMI

What is a tsunami and what

are its causes and effects?

Tsunami is a wave caused by a sudden movement of the

ocean surface due to earthquakes, landslides on the sea
floor, land slumping into the ocean, large volcanic
eruptions or meteorite impact in the ocean. It destroys
human life and livelihood and also causes the loss of
natural resources.
TSUNAMI

What are the factors of

destruction from tsunamis?
There are three factors of destructions from tsunamis: inundation,
wave impact on structures, and erosion.
Strong, tsunami-induced currents lead to the erosion of foundations and the collapse
of bridges and seawalls. Flotation and drag forces move houses and overturn
railroad cars. Considerable damage is caused by the resultant floating debris,
including boats and cars that become dangerous projectiles that may crash into
buildings, break power lines, and may start fires. Fires from damaged ships in ports
or from ruptured coastal oil storage tanks and refinery facilities, can cause damage
greater than that inflicted directly by the tsunami. Of increasing concern is the
potential effect of tsunami draw down, when receding waters uncover cooling water
intakes of nuclear power plants.
TSUNAMI
DESTRUCTIONS FROM TSUNAMI
TSUNAMI
DESTRUCTIONS FROM TSUNAMI
TSUNAMI
DESTRUCTIONS FROM TSUNAMI
TSUNAMI
DESTRUCTIONS FROM TSUNAMI
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED
LANDSLIDE
What is Earthquake-Induced Landslide?
When an earthquake
occurs, the transmission of
seismic waves can cause
shaking and vibration of
ground surface. This often
trigger the collapse of
potential landslide areas,
which is known as
earthquake-induced
landslide.
What is the Effect of Earthquake-Induce Landslide?
Earthquakes often trigger
landslides, causing
significant and even
catastrophic damage to
houses. If your house is in
the path of an earthquake-
induced landslide, it is at
risk for damage from
landslide debris, as well as
sliding downhill itself.
How are Earthquake-Induced Landslide Formed?
Earthquakes are a major
cause of landslides. Landslides
occur when masses of rock,
earth material, or debris flows
move down a slope due to
gravity. Landslides can occur
on any terrain if the
conditions are right and cause
significant damage and
casualties to people and
property.
•DEBRIS FLOWS
are fast-moving
landslides that are
particularly dangerous
to life and property
because they move
quickly, destroy objects
in their paths, and often
strike without warning.
•TRANSLATIONAL SLIDES
such slumps and slides occur in
very wet weather, when the
near-surface soil and rock
debris gets saturated with water,
and slides and flows downslope.
They can develop into more
dangerous debris flows on steep
ground, where the landslide
may travel a long distance,
churning up the debris into a
slurry.
What is an Earthquake Hazard Map?

Hazard maps are created to illustrate locations that are impacted

by or vulnerable to a specific hazard. They are often designed to
withstand natural disasters including earthquake ground motion,
.
flooding, landslides, liquefaction, and tsunami. Hazard maps are
tools that, when used properly by planners, developers, and
engineers, can prevent exposure to some hazards while
designing other development to minimize or eliminate the
possible negative consequences of these hazards, thereby saving
lives and preventing financial losses.
What is an Earthquake Hazard Map?

Many risks associated with earthquakes and their

aftershocks can be identified and mapped individually in
areas where doing so is a top priority. Where there is a
vulnerability to these dangers, ground shaking can cause
soil liquefaction and landslides. Understanding the
nature and scope of local flood plains is essential for
managing earthquake risk because ground failure that
damages flood defenses and dams can result in flooding.
 How To Read The Maps

The colors in the maps denote “seismic design categories”

(SDCs), which reflect the likelihood of experiencing earthquake
shaking of various intensities. (Building design and construction
professionals use SDCs specified in building codes to determine
the level of seismic resistance required for new buildings.)
The following table describes the hazard level associated with
each SDC and the associated levels of shaking. Although stronger
shaking is possible in each SDC, it is less probable than the
shaking described.
SDC/Map Color Earthquake Hazard Potential Effects of Shaking

A/White Very small probability of

experiencing damaging earth­
quake effects.

B/Gray Could experience shaking of Moderate shaking—Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy
moderate intensity. furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.

C/Yellow Could experience strong Strong shaking—Damage negligible in buildings of good design and
shaking. construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures;
considerable damage in poorly built structures.

D/Light Brown Could experience very strong Very strong shaking—Damage slight in specially designed structures;
shaking (the darker the color, considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial
D1/Darker Brown the stronger the shaking). collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures.

D2/Darkest Brown

E/Red Near major active faults Strongest shaking—Damage considerable in specially designed
capable of producing the most structures; frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in
intense shaking. substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off
foundations. Shaking intense enough to completely destroy buildings.
 Importance of Hazard Maps
● Hazard maps offer crucial information that can be used to reduce disaster risk and assist people understand the
dangers of natural hazards. Hazard maps show the size of anticipated risk areas and can be used in connection
with disaster management data, such as locations for evacuation and evacuation routes.

● Recognizing the uncertainties associated with hazard assessment, the largest possible hazard scenario should
have been used, drawing on all available information including not only seismological but also geological,
archaeological, and historical studies looking at tsunami deposits, ancient documentation, and so on.

● Hazard maps are effective tools for promoting risk awareness, for designing evacuation procedures, and for
deciding the locations of evacuation facilities and shelters. Hazard maps should be easy to understand and easy
to use for purposes of prompt evacuation, and users should be aware of the limitations and uncertainties of the
information they contain. Considering budget and technical constrains, risk estimation methods
Earthquake
Preparedness
Safety Tips and Plan
What is eathquake preparedness?
What comes to your mind? What does it mean?
Earthquake
Preparedness
Earthquake preparedness is a set of measures taken at the
individual, organisational and societal level to minimise the
effects of an earthquake. Preparedness measures can range
from securing heavy objects, structural modifications and
storing supplies, to having insurance, an emergency kit, and
evacuation plans.