Unit-IV

Radiation
 RADIATION

The heat is transferred from one body to another without any transmitting medium is
known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.

EMISSION PROPERTIES:

The rate of emission of radiation by a body depends upon the following factors.

1. The wavelength or frequency of radiation.

2. The temperature of surface.
3. The nature of the surface
ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION:
Q  Qa  Qr  Qt

Q- Incident Radiation energy

Qa- Absorbed Radiation energy
Qr- Reflected energy
Qt-Transmitted energy

Dividing the above equation by Q

Q Qa Qr Qt
  
Q Q Q Q

1     

Radiation absorbed Qa
Absorptivaity   
Incident Radiation Q Generally for all surfaces α + ρ + τ = 1
Radiation reflected Qr
Reflectivity  
Incident Radiation Q For opaque surfaces α + ρ = 1

Radiation transmitted Qt
For black surfaces α = 1
Transmissi vity   
Incident Radiation Q
Kirchhoff’s law

‘‘The absorptivity of a surface at a temperature and wavelength is equal to the emissivity

of the surface at the same temperature and wavelength’’.

For practical application this statement is simplified as

ε=α
Monochromatic values should be used for critical design situations
HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO NON-BLACK (GRAY) PARALLEL
PLANES:
Consider two very large parallel gray surfaces (assume opaque surface) of areas A 1and A2at a
small distance apart, and exchanging radiation as shown in
α1α2- Absorptivity of plane 1
α1 ρ1 α2 ρ2 & 2 respectively
E1
α2E1 ρ1,ρ2- Reflectivity of the
)E 1
(1-α 2 plane 1&2 respectively
α1(1-α2)E1 (1-α )
1 (1-α
2 )E1 E1 – Energy incident on
2E α2(1-α1)(1-α2)E1
α ) ( 1 -α 2) 1 surface 2
α1(1-α1)(1-α2)2E1 ( 1- 1
(1-α
1 ) 2(1
-α ) 2
2 E
1
T1 ,ε1– Temperature &
α2(1-α1)2(1-α2)2E1 Emissivity of the plane 1
2 (1-α 2) E 1
3

(1-α 1)
α1(1-α1)2(1-α2)3E1 (1-α ) 3
1 (1-α 3
2) E T2 ,ε2– Temperature &
1
α2(1-α1)3(1-α2)2E1 Emissivity of the plane 1
 Assumptions:

1.The configuration factor of either surface is

 
Q1  E1  1 1   2 E1 1  P  P 2  ..... (1)
unity. Since α1 and α2 less than unity,
P will be less than unity
2. There is no absorbing medium in between As P<1, the series 1+P+P2+…
the surfaces. when extended to infinity gives 1
1 P
3. The emissive and reflective properties are
constant for over all surfaces. Substitute the value of P1 in equ. (1)
1
Q1  E1  1 1   2 E1 
1 P

The rate of radiant energy leaving surface 1 is

given by 1 1   2 E1
 E1 

Q1  E1  1 1   2 E1  1 1  1 1   2  E1  1 1  1  1   2  E1  .....
2 2 3
 1 P

Substitute P value
 
Q1  E1  1 1   2 E1 1  1 1  1 1   2   1  1  1   2   .....
2 2

 1 1   2  
Q1  E1 1  
P  1  1 1   2   1  1  1 1   2 
From Kirchoff's law, we know that, emissivity Similarly,
and absorptivity of a surfaces are equal. The rate of radiant energy leaving surface 2 is
given by
1   1 and  2   2
 1 E2
Q2 
  1 1   2    2   1   1 2
Q1  E1 1  
 1  1   1 1   2 

1  1   1 1   2    1 1   2 
 E1   The net radiative heat exchange from surface 1
 1  1   1 1   2  
to 2 is given by
1  1   2   1   1 2    1 1   2 
 E1  
 1  1   1 1   2   Q12  Q1  Q2 (3)
1  1   2   1   1 2   1   1 2 
 E1   E1 2 E 2 1
 1  1   2   1   1 2  Q12  
 2   1   1 2  2   1   1 2
 2 E1
Q1 
 2   1   1 2 (2)
E1 2  E2 1
Q12  (4)
 2   1   1 2
From Stefan-Boltzmann law, 
 4
Q12    T1  T2
4
 (5)
Eb  T 4   1 2

 2   1   1 2
4
E1  T1
Divide by  1 2

E1   1T1
4  1 2
  1 2
E2   2T2
4 
 2   1   1 2
 1 2

Substitute E1and E2 values in equation (4)  1

4
 1T1  2   2T2  1 4 
1 1
Q12   1
 2   1   1 2 1  2

Q12 

 1 2 T14  T2 4  Heat exchange between two parallel surface is
 2   1   1 2 given by(considering Area).
Q12 
 1 2
 2   1   1 2

 T14  T2 4  

Q12   A T1  T2
4 4

 1
Where,  
1 1
 1
1  2
HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO LARGE CONCENTRIC CYLINDERS OR SPHERES

Consider two large concentric cylinders

of areas A1 and A2 exchanging radiation as
shown in Fig

 4
Q12   A T1  T2
4

 1
Where,  
1 A1  1 
   1
 1 A 2   2 

For Cylinders, Area A = 2πrL

For Sphere, Area A = 4πr2
 RADIATION SHIELD

Radiation shields constructed from low emissivity (high reflective) materials. It

is used to reduce the net radiation transfer between two surfaces.

The net heat exchange between parallel Q12 


A T14  T24 
plates without radiation shield is given by 1 1
 1
1  2

Heat exchange between 1 and 3 is

Q13 

A T14  T34 
1 1
 1
1  3

Heat exchange between 3 and 2 is

Q32 
 
A T34  T24
1 1
 1
3 2
Under equilibrium condition Heat transfer with n shield is given by

Q13=Q32
Q1n 
 
A T14  T24
1 1 2n
   n  1

Q13 
 
A T14  T24
1  2  s
1 1  1 1  Where
   1     1
  3  2   1  3 
n- Number of shields
εs-Emissivity of shield
If ε1=ε2=ε3

Q13 1

Q12 2
1.Calculate the net radiant interchange per sq.m for two large planes at a temperature of 900 K
and 400 K respectively. Assume that the emissivity of hot plane is 0.9 and that of cold plane is
0.7

Given:
Hot plane temperature T1=900K
Cold plane temperature T2=400K
Emissivity of hot plane ε1=0.9
Emissivity of cold plane ε2=0.7

To find
Net radiant heat exchange per
square meter 

Solution:   0.649
The heat exchange between two large σ-Stefan-Boltzmann constant
parallel plate is given by =5.67×10-8W/m2K

 4
Q   A T1  T2
4

 1

Q  0.649  5.67  10 8  A 900 4  400 4 
 Q
1 1  23.2 W/m 2
 1
1  2 A

 1

1 1
 1
0 . 9 0 .7
2.Two large parallel plates are maintained at a temperature of 900 K and 500 K respectively.
Each plate has an area of 6 m2. Compare the net heat exchange between the plates for the
following cases:
l. Both plates are black.
2. Plates have an emissivity of 0.5.

Solution:
Given: This is heat transfer between two large
T1=900K parallel plates problem.
T2=500K

Heat transfer Q12    A T1  T2  4 4

A=6m2
ε1= ε2=0.5 Case 1: For black surface,

Emissivity   1


Q12  A T1  T2
4 4


 5.67  10 8  6 900 4  500 4 
To find: Q12  201.9  103 W
Heat exchange for
1. Both plates are black.
2. Plates have an emissivity of 0.5.
 Case 2:

Emissivity  1   2  0.5

 1

1 1
 1
1  2
 1

1 1
 1
0 . 5 0 .5

  0.33


Q12  0.33  5.67  10 8  6  900 4  500 4 

Q12  66.6  103 W

Result:
1.Case I : Q12  201.9  103 W
2.Case II : Q12  66.6  103 W
3. Calculate the heat exchange by radiation between the surfaces of two long cylinders having
radii 120 mm and 60 mm respectively. The axis of the cylinders are parallel to each other. The
inner cylinder is maintained at a temperature of 1300C and emissivity of 0.6. Outer cylinder is
maintained at a temperature of 300Cand emissivity of 0.5.
 1
Given 
1 A1  1 
r1=60 mm =0.060m    1
 1 A 2   2  [A=πDL]
r2=120mm=0.12m
T1=1300C=130+273  1
=403K 
1 D1 L1  1 
ε1=0.6    1
0.6 D 2 L2  0.5 
L1=L2=1
T2=300C=30+273
=303K  1

ε2=0.5 1 0.12  1


 1

0.6 0.24  0.5 

To find:   0.46
Heat exchange, (Q).

Q12  0.46  5.67  108    D1  L  4034  3034 

 0.46  5.67  10 8    0.12  1  4034  3034 
Solution: Heat exchange between two large Q  176.47 W
concentric cylinder is given by

 4
Q12   A1 T1  T2
4

4. Two concentric spheres 30 cm and 40 cm in diameter with the space between them evacuated
are used to store liquid air at - 1300C in a room at 250 C The surfaces of the spheres are flushed
with aluminium of emissivity 0.05. Calculate the rate of evaporation of liquid air if the latent
heat of vaporization of liquid air is 220 kJ/kg.

Given
Inner diameterD1=30cm=0.3m
Inner radius r1=0.15m
Outer diameter D2=40cm=0.4m
Outer radius r2=0.2m
T1= -1300C= -130+273
=143K
Solution:
T2=250C =25+273
This is heat exchange between large concentric
=298K sphere problem.
ε=0.05
Latent heat of evaporation =220kJ/kg
=220×103J/kg


Heat transferQ12   A1 T1  T2
4 4

 1

To find : 1 A1  1 
   1
Rate of evaporation.  1 A 2   2 
  1   2  0.05; A  4r 2

Q12  0.032  5.67  10 8  ( 4  0.152 ) 1434  2984 
 1
 Q12  3.83 W
1 4r12  1 
 2 
 1
0.05 4r2  0.05 

 1

1 r12  1  [- ve sign indicates heat is transferred from
 2  1
0.05 r2  0.05  outer surface to Inner surface]
. Heat transfer (Q)
 1 Rate of evaporation ( m) 
 Latent heat (h fg )
1 0.152  1 
 2 
 1
0.05 0.2  0.05 
3.83

 220  103
  0.032

Heat transferQ12    ( 4r12 ) T1  T2 4 4
  1.74  10 5 kg / s
PROBLEMS ON RADIATION SHIED

5.Calculate the net radiant heat exchange per m2 area for two large parallel plates at
temperature of 4270C and 270C respectively. ε(hot plate) = 0.9 ε(cold plate) = 0.6. If a
polished aluminium shield is placed between them, find the percentage of reduction in the
heat transfer. ε(shied) = 0.4.

Given:
T1=4270C =427+273
=700K
T2=270C=27+273
=300K
ε1=0.9
ε2=0.6
ε3=0.4
To find :
1.Net radiant heat exchange per m2 area.
2.Percentage of reduction in the heat transfer.
 Case 2 : Heat transfer with radiation shield:
Solution:
Heat exchange between plate 1 and
Case 1 : Heat transfer without radiation shield: radiation shield 3 is given by
Heat exchange between two large parallel
plates without radiation shield is given by

Q13   A T1  T3 4 4

 1
Heat transfer Q12   A T1  T2

 4 4
 
1 1
 1
1  3
 1

1 1
 1
1  2 Q13 

A T14  T34 
1 1 (2)
 1
 1 1  3

1 1
 1
0 . 9 0 .6 Heat exchange between radiation shield 3
 and plate 2 is given by
  0.5625

Q12  0.5625  5.67  10 8


 A  700  300 4 4


Q32   A T3  T2  4 4

 1
Q12 
 7.39  103 W/m 2 1 1
A (1)  1
2 3
 Q32 

A T34  T24  T34  1.353  1011
1 1 (3)
 1
2 3
Radiation shield temperature
We know that Q13=Q32 T3=606.55K

 
A T14  T34 A T34  T24

  Substitute T3 value in equation (2) or (3)
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1  3 2 3
Heat transfer with radiation shield Q13 
 
A T14  T34
T  T34
1
4

 
T34  T24  1 1
 1
1  3
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1  3 2 3


5.67  10 8  A 700 4  606.554 
1 1
700  T34 4

 
T34  300 4  
0.9 0.4
1
1 1 1 1 Q
 1  1
0 .9 0 . 4 0 .4 0 .6  2.27  103 W/m 2
A

700 4
 
 T34 T34  300 4


2.611 3.166

7.6  1011  3.166T34  2.611T34  2.11  1010

7.81 1011  5.77T34

 Q without shield  Q with shield
Reduction in heat loass due to radiation shield 
Q without shield

Q12  Q13

Q12

7.39  103  2.27  103


7.39  103

 0.692  69.2%
Result:
1.Net radiant heat exchange (without shield) =7.39×103 W/m2
2.Percentage of reduction in the heat transfer due to shield = 69.2
6.Two large parallel planes at 800 K and 600 K have emissivities of 0.5 and 0.8
respectively. A radiation shield having an emissivity of 0.1 on one side and an
emissivity of 0.05 on the other side is placed between the plates. Calculate the he
transfer rate by radiation per square meter with and without radiation shield.
Comment on the results.
Given:
T1=800K
T2=600K
ε1=0.5
ε2=0.8
ε3a=0.1
ε3b=0.05

To find:
1. Heat transfer rate per square metre without
radiation shield.
2. Heat transfer rate per square metre with
radiation shield.
3. Comment on the results.
Solution :
Case 2 : Heat transfer with radiation shield
Case 1: Heat transfer without radiation shield
Heat exchange between plate 1 and radiation
Heat exchange between two parallel plates shield 3a is given by
without radiation shield is given by 
Q13a   A T1  T3  4 4



Q12   A T1  T2
4 4
  1

1 1
  1
1 1  1  3a
 
 
1 1 1 1
 1  1 A T14  T3 4
1  2 0 .5 0 .8 Q13a 
1 1
 1
 1  3a
  0.444
Heat exchange between radiation shield 3b

Q12  0.444  5.67  10 8  A 800 4  600 4  and plate 2 is given by

Q13a   A T3  T2  4 4

Heat transfer without radiation shield
=7.048×103 W/m2  1

1 1
 1
 3b  2
 
A T3 4  T2 4   4
 
20.25 800 4  T3  11 T3  600 4
4

Q3b , 2 
1 1
 1
 3b 2 4 4
8.29  1012  20.25T3  11T3  1.42  1012

Q1,3a = Q3b,2 9.71  1012  31.25T3

4

4
T3  3.1072  1011

A T14  T3 4   AT  T2 3
4 4

1 1 1 1 Radiation shield temperature
 1  1
1  3a  3b 2 T3=746.6K

T 1
4
 T3
4

  T2 T 3
4 4
 Substitute T3 value in equation (2) or (3),
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1  3a  3b 2 Heat transfer with radiation shield

A T14  T3 4 
800  T3

4
T3  600
4
  4 4
 Q1,3a 
1

1
1
1 1 1 1 1  3a
 1  1
0.5 0.1 0.05 0.8

800 4
 T3
4
  T 3
4
 600 4 
11 20.25
 Q1,3a 

5.67  10 8  A 800 4  746.6 4 
1 1
 1
0.5 0.1

Heat transfer with radiation shield

Q1,3a  509.74 W/m 2

Q without shield  Q with shield

Reduction in heat transfer due to radiation shield 
Q without shield

Q12  Q1,3a

Q12

7.048  103  509.74


7.048  103
=0.927

=92.7%

Comment:
The presence of radiation shield reduces
the heat transfer rate significantly.
7.Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at T1K and T2K are 0.6 and 0.6
respectively. Heat transfer is reduced 75 times when a polished aluminium radiation
shields of emissivity 0.04 are placed in between them. Calculate the number of
shields required.
Given:
ε1=0.6
ε2=0.6
ε3=εs=0.04
Heat transfer reduced =75 times
To find:
Number of shields required.

Solution:
Heat transfer with n shield is given by
Heat transfer without shield, i.e., n = O

Q1n 

A T14  T2 4  
A T14  T2 4 
 2n  Q12 
1 1 1 1
     n  1  1
1 2  s  1 2
Heat transfer is reduced 75 times. 1 1  2n 
    n  1
0.6 0.6  0.04 
Q without shield  75
 75 1 1
 1
Q with shield 0 .6 0 .6

Q12 3.33  50n  n  1

 75  75
Q1n 2.33

50n-n-1 =171.67

A T14  T2 4  49n-1 =171.67
1 1
 1
( 2) 1  2 49n =172.67
(1)


A T14  T2 4   75
n =3.52≈4
1  2n 
1
     n  1
 1  2   s  n =4

1 1  2n 
     n  1
1  2   s 
 75
1

1
1
Result:
1 2 Number of shields required, n = 4
nos.
ELECTRICAL NETWORK ANALOGY FOR THERMAL RADIATION SYSTEMS
BY USING RADIOSITY AND IRRADIATION
An alternate approach for analyzing thermal radiation between gray or black surfaces is
called electrical network analogy

Irradiation (G)

It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area. It is
expressed in W/m2.

Radiosity (J)
It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit area. It is
expressed in W/m2.

The radiosity (J)consists of two parts

1. Reflected by the surface =ρG

2. Emitted by the surface =εEb

J  G  Eb (1)
 J  Eb
Irradiation G  (2)
We know that 1 
Absorptivity + Reflectivity + Transmissivity =1

    1 The net energy leaving a surface is the

difference between its radiosity (J) and
 0 irradiation (G).
   1
Q1-2
 1 A
 J G

 J  E b 
(1) J  1   G  Eb  J  
 1  
J 1     J  Eb 
we know that ,α=ε 
1 

Radiosity J  1   G  Eb (1) J  J  J  Eb


J  Eb  1   G 1 
Eb  J

1 

Q1 2  Eb  J 

A 1 
 If two bodies which are radiating heat with
each other and if the radiating heat of one body
A Eb  J  per unit area is not falling on the other and part of
Q1 2  (3)
1  it has gone elsewhere, then, it is taken into
account by a factor which is known as shape factor
Eb  J
Q1 2  or view factor.
1 
A The heat radiated by the first body and
This can be represented in the form received by the second body = J1A1F1-2
of electrical circuit as shown in Fig
The heat radiated by the first body and
received by the second body = J2A2F2-1

So, net heat lost by the first body,

Q1-2= = J1A1F1-2 - J2A2F2-1

Where
1  = A1F1-2 (J1- J2 )
is known as surface resistance of the body
A
(A1F1-2 = A2F2-1)

J1  J 2
Q1 2 
1 (4)
AF12
 T14  T24
This again can be represented by an electric Q1 2 
1  1 1 1 2
circuit as shown in Fig.  
 1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2

Q1 2 

 T14  T24 
1  1 1 1 2
 
 1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
Where
1 Where σ-stefan boltzmann
is known as surface resistance of the body constant=5.67×10-8 W/m2K4
A1 F12
T1-Temperature of surface 1,K
T2-Temperature of surface 2,K
If two surface resistance of the two bodies ε1- Emissivity of surface 1
and space resistance between them is
ε2- Emissivity of surface 2
considered, then, the net heat flow can be
represented by an electric circuit as shown in A1- Area of surface 1
Fig A2- Area of surface 2
F12- Shape factor

For black surface,

Eb1  Eb 2
Q1 2  ε1 = ε2 =1
1  1 1 1 2
 
 1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
Eb  T 4
 
Q1 2   T14  T24  A1 F12
RADIATION OF HEAT EXCHANGE FOR THREE GRAY SURFACES:

The network for three gray surfaces is

shown in Figure below. In this case each of the
bodies exchanges heat with the other two. The
heat expressions are as follows: J1  J 2
Q1 2 
1
A1 F12

J1  J 3
Q13 
1
A1 F13

J2  J3
Q23 
1
A2 F23

The values of Q12, Q I3 ,Q23 are determined from the values of the radiosities
(JI,J2 and J3).
Kirchhoff's law which states that the sum of the current entering a node is zero,
is used to find the radiosity.
Shape factor:
4.The Symmetry Rule
1. Reciprocity relation:

A1F12 = A2F21

2. The Summation Rule

3. The Superposition Rule

5. crossed-strings method
Calculate the shape factors for the By reciprocity theorem,
configurations shown in Fig.
A1 F12  A2 F21 A2 F21
F12 
A1
1. A black body inside a black enclosure F11  1  F12
A2
F11  1  F21
A1
F21  1
A
F11  1  2
A1

Solution: Result:
F21 = 1 A2
F11  1 
[All radiation emitted from the black surface 2 A1
is absorbed by the enclosing surface 1.] AF
F12  2 21
A1
F21  1
We know that,

F11  F12  1
2. A tube with cross section of an equilateral
triangle. F12  F13  0.5

Now considering radiation from surface 2,

F21  F22  F23  1

F22  0

F21  F23  1

Solution: F23  1  F21

F11  F12  F13  1

For flat surface, shape factor F11=0

F12  F13  1
By reciprocity theorem, we know

F12  F13

A1 F12  A2 F21
[Since symmetry triangle]
 A1
F21  F12
A2

F21  F12

F23  1  F21

F21  1  F12 

 1  F12 F12  0.5

 1 0.5

F23  0.5

Result:
F11  0 F21  F12  0.5

F12  0.5 F22  0

F13  0.5
F23  0.5
3. Hemispherical surface and a plane surface Since all radiation emitting from the black
surface 2 absorbed by the enclosing surface 1,

F21  1

A2
F12 
A1

r 2
F12 
Solution: 2r 2
1
F12   0 .5
F11  F12  0 2

we know that
F11+F12=1
By reciprocity theorem,
F11+0.5=1
A1 F12  A2 F21
F11 = 0.5
A2 Result:
F12  F21 F11=0.5
A1
F12=0.5
F21 = 1
Determine the view factor (F14) for the figure shown below

Solution:

From Fig., we know that,

A5=A1+A2
A6=A3+A4

Further,
A5 F5-6=A1 F1-6 + A2F2-6

[A5 =A1 + A2
F5-6=F1-6 + F2-6 ]
 Shape factor for the area A5and A6 :
= A1 F1-3+A1 F1-4 + A2F2-6

[F1-6= F1-3 + F1-4 ]

A5F5-6 = A5 F5-3+A2 F2-3 + A1F1-4+ A2F2-6

A1F1-4 = A5F5-6 - A5 F5-3+A2 F2-3 - A2F2-6

L2 2
A A Z   2
F1 4  5 F56  F53   2 F23  F26  B 1
A1 A1
L 2
Y  1  2
B 1

Z value is 2, Y value is 2. From that we can

find corresponding shape factor value is
[Refer HMT data book, Page no.94 (Sixth 0.14930
Edition))
F56  0.14930
L2
Z 
B
L
Y  1
B
Shape factor for tire area A5 and A3: Shape factor for the area A2 and A6 :

L2 2
Z   2
B 1
L 1
L2 1 Y  1  1
Z   1 B 1
B 1
L 2 F2  6  0.23285
Y  1  2
B 1
Substitute F5-6, F5-3, F2-3 and F2-6 values in equation (1)
F53  0.11643
A5
F1 4  0.14930  0.11643  A2 0.20004  0.23285
A1 A1
 A5
 0.03287  A2 0.03281
A1 A1

2
 0.03287  1 0.03281
1 1

F1 4  0.03293

Result:
View factor F1-4 =0.03293
Find the shape factor F1-2 for the fig shown below. In the Fig., the areas A 1 and A2 are
perpendicular but do not share the common edge.

Solution:

From Fig., we know that,

A5=A1+A3
A6=A2+A4
We know that,

A5 F5-6=A1 F1-6 + A3F3-6

[A5 =A1 + A3
F5-6=F1-6 + F3-6 ]
 = A1 F1-4+A1 F1-2 + A3F3-6
[Refer HMT data book, Page no.94 (Sixth
[F1-6= F1-4 + F1-2 ] edition)]

A5F5-6 = A5 F5-4-A3 F3-4 + A1F1-2+ A3F3-6 L2

Z 
[A1=A5-A3 ; F1-4= F5-4 - F3-4 ] B
L
Y  1
B
A1F1-2 = A5F5-6 - A5 F5-4+A3 F3-4 - A3F3-6

A1F1-2 = A5 [F5-6 - F5-4 ]+A3 [F3-4 - A3F3-6 ]

A5
F1 2  F56  F54   A3 F34  F36  ……(1)
A1 A1

L2 4
Z   2
B 2
L1 4
Y   2
B 2
Z value is 2, Y value IS 2. From that, we can find
corresponding shape factor value is 0.14930
(From tables, Page No.94)

F5-6=0.1493

L2 2
Z   1
B 2
L 2
Y  1  1
B 2

From tables
F5-4=0.20004

L2 2
Z   1 L2 4
B 2 Z   2
L 4 B 2
Y  1  2 L 2
B 2 Y  1  1
B 2
From tables
F5-4=0.11643
From tables
F5-4=0.23285
Substitute F5-6, F5-4, F3-4,F3-6 values in equation (1)

A5
F1 2  0.14930  0.11643  A3 0.20004  0.23285
A1 A1

A5
 0.03287  A3 0.03281
A1 A1

4 2
 0.03287  2  2 0.03281
2 2 2 2

 20.03287  10.03281

F1 2  0.03293

Result:

Shape factor F1 2  0.03293

Two black square plates' of size 2 by 2m are placed parallel to each other at a distance of 0.5 m.
One plate is maintained at a temperature of 1000OC and the other at 5000C Find the heat
exchange between the plates.

Given

Area, A = 2 x 2 = 4 m2

T1= 10000C =1000+273 =1273K

T2=5000C =500+273 =773K
Distance =0.5m

Solution:
To find:
Heat transfer by radiation general equation is
Heat transfer, (Q).

Q1 2 

 T14  T24 
1  1 1 1 2
 
 1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
 Curve 2 Since given square
For black body
plates
1   2  1

 
Q1 2   T14  T24 A1 F12
X axis value is 4, curve is 2. So,
corresponding Y axis value is 0.62
 5.67  10 1273
8 4

 7734  4  F12

Q12  5.14  105  F12

Where F12-Shape factor for square plates

In order to find shape factor F12, refer

HMT data book, Page no.90 (Sixth Edition)

Q12  5.14  105  0.62

Smaller side
X axis 
Distance between planes Q12  3.18  105 W

2
X axis 
0.5

X axis  4
 Two circular discs of diameter 0.3 m each are placed parallel to each other at a distance of
0.2 m. One disc is maintained at a temperature of 750 0C and the other at 3500C and their
corresponding emissivities are 0.3 and 0.6. Calculate heat exchange between the discs
Given
D1=0.3m
D2=0.3m

A1  A2  D2
4

 0 .3 2
4
A1  A2  0.07 m 2

T1= 7500C =750+273 =1023K

T2=3500C =350+273 =623K To find:
Distance between discs=0.2m Heat exchange between discs, (Q).
 1  0 .3 Solution:
 2  0 .6 Heat transfer by radiation general equation is

Q1 2 

 T14  T24 
1  1 1 1 2
 
 1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
 X axis value is 1.5, curve is 1. So,
corresponding Y axis value is 0.28
Q1 2 

5.67  10 8 10234  6234 F12=0.28
1  0 .3 1 1  0. 6
 
0.07  0.3 0.07  F12 0.07  0.6

Where F12 –Shape factor for disc

In order to find shape factor F12, refer HMT

data book Page no.90 (Sixth edition) 5.35  10 4
Q1 2 
1
Smaller side 42.85 
X axis  0.07  0.28
Distance between planes

0.3 Q1 2  569.9 W

X axis 
0.2

X axis  1.5

Curve 1 Since given is disc

Two black discs of diameter 62 cm are arranged directly opposite to each other and separated by
a distance of 125 cm. The temperature of the discs are 1150 K and 620 K. Calculate the heat flow
by radiation between the discs for the following cases.
1. When no other surfaces are present.
2. When the discs are connected by non-conducting surface.

Given: Solution :
Diameter of disc 1,D1=62cm=0.62m 
Area A1  D12
Diameter of disc 2,D2=62cm=0.62m 4
Distance =125 cm =1.25m 
Temperature of disc 1, T1=1150K   0.62 2
4
Temperature of disc 2, T2=620K

A1=0.3m2

To find: A2 = A1=0.3m2
Heat flow by radiation.
1. When no other surfaces are present.
2. When the discs are connected by non conducting
surface.
 Where F12 – Shape factor for disc
We know that,
Heat transfer by radiation general equation is In order to find shape factor F12, refer HMT
data book Page no.90 (Sixth edition)

Q1 2 

 T14  T24  X axis 
Diameter
1  1 1 1 2 Distance between planes
 
 1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
0.62
For black body X axis 
1.25
1   2  1
X axis  1.5
 T4
 T24 
Q1 2  1
1 Case 1:
A1 F12
When no other surfaces are present

Q1 2  A1 F12 T14  T24  radiation. So, choose curve 1.

X axis value is 0.496, curve is 1.

8
Q1 2  5.67  10  0.3  F12 1150  620  4 4

So, corresponding Y axis value is 0.05.
Q1 2  27.2  103  F12 F12  0.05
 Q1 2  27.2  103  0.05 Q1 2  27.2  103  0.34

Q1 2  1360 W Q1 2  9248 W

Case 2 : Result:

The discs are connected by non-conducting Q12 (direct radiation) =1360 W

surfaces. So, choose curve 5.
Q12 (Planes connected by non-conducting
X axis value is 0.496, curve is 5. surfaces) = 9248 W
So, corresponding Y axis value is 0.34 .
F12  0.34
Two parallel plates of size 3 m x 2m are placed parallel to each other. at a distance of 1 m. One
plate is maintained at a temperature of 5500C and the other at 2500C and the emissivities are
0.35 and 0.55 respectively. The plates are located in a large room whose walls are at 35 0C. If the
plates exchange heat with each other and with the room, calculate
1. Heat lost by the plates,
2. Heat received by the room.

Given:
Size of the plates = 3m × 2m
Distance between plates =1 m
First plate Temperature, T1=5500C=550+273=873K
Second plate Temperature, T2=2500C=250+273=523K
Emissivity of the first plate ε1=0.35
Emissivity of the second plateε2=0.55
Room temperature T3=350C=35+273=308K

To find
1.Heat lost by the plate
2.Heat received by the room
Solution:
In this problem, heat exchange take place From electrical network diagram
between two plates and the room. So, this is
1  1 1  0.35  0.309
three surface problem and the corresponding 
radiation network is given below.  1 A1 0.35  6

1   2 1  0.55
  0.136
 2 A2 0.55  6

1 3
0
 3 A3 [A3=∞]

1 3 1  1 1 2
Apply  0,  0.309,  0.136 values
 3 A3  1 A1  2 A2
in electrical network diagram

Area A1 =3×2=6m2
A3= A1 =A2=6m2
Since the room is large A3=∞
 To find shape factor F12' refer HMT data book, We know that,
Page no.91 & 92 (Sixth edition). F11  F12  F13  1

But F11  0

F13  1  F12
F13  1  0.47
F13  0.53
L 3
X   3 Similarly, F21  F22  F23  1
D 1
B 2 We know that,
Y   2
D 1
F23  1  F21
X value is 3, curve value is 2. From that, we can
find corresponding shape factor value is 0.47, F23  1  F12
(i. e.) F 12= 0.47.
F23  1  0.47

F23  0.53
F 12= 0.47
From electrical network diagram,
Eb 2  T24
1

1
 0.314  5.67  10 8  5234
A1 F13 6  0.53

1 1 Eb 2  4.24  103 W/m 2

  0.314
A1 F23 6  0.53
Eb 3  T34
1

1
 0.354  5.67  10 8  308 4
A1 F12 6  0.47
Eb 3  510.23W/m 2
From Stefan-Boltzmann law,
Eb 3  J 3  510.23W/m 2

Eb  T 4 The radiosities J1, and J2 can be calculated by

using Kirchhoff's law.
Eb1  T14
The sum of current entering the node J, is zero.
 5.67  10 8  8234
At Node J1:
Eb1  26.01  103 W/m 2 Eb1  J1 J 2  J1 Eb 3  J1
  0
0.309 1 1
A1 F12 A1 F13
 26.01  103  J1 J 2  J1 510.23  J1 -9.24J1 + 2.82 J2 = -85.79×103
  0 2.82J1 - 13.3 J2 = -32.8×103
0.309 0.354 0.314
_____________________________________

J1 J J J By solving J2 = 4.73×103 W/m2

84.17  103   2  1  1625  1  0
0.309 0.354 0.354 0.314 J1 = 10.73×103 W/m2

 9.24 J1  2.82 J 2  85.79  103 Heat lost by plate 1 is given by

Eb1  J1
At Node J2 : Q1 
 1  1 
 
J 1  J 2 Eb 3  J 2 Eb 2  J 2  A
  0  1 1 
1 1 0.136
A1 F12 A2 F23
26.01  103  10.73  103
Q1 
J1  J 2 510.25  J 2 4.24  103  J 2  1  0.35 
  0  
0.354 0.314 0.136  0.35  6 

J1 J2 510.25 J2 4.24  103 J

     2 0 Q1  49.36  103
0.354 0.354 0.314 0.314 0.136 0.136

2.82 J1  13.3 J 2  32.8  103

Heat lost by plate 2 is given by Heat received by the room
J1  J 3 J 2  J 3
Eb 2  J 2 Q 
Q2  1 1
1 2  A1 F13 A2 F23
 
 A
 2 2
4.24  103  4.73  103
Q2  10.73  103  510.25 4.73  103  510.25
 1  0.55  Q 
  0.314 0.314
 0 . 55  6 
3
Eb3  J 3  512.9
Q2  3.59  10 W

Total heat lost by the plates

Q  Q1  Q2 Q  45.9  103 W

 49.36  103  3.59  103

Q  45.76  103 W
RADIATION FROM GASES AND VAPOURS – EMISSION AND ABSORPTION

Many gases such as N2, 02' H2' dry air etc., do not emit or absorb any appreciable
amount of thermal radiation. These gases may be considered as transparent to
thermal radiation.
On the other hand, some gases and vapours such as CO2, CO, H20, S02, NH3, etc.,
emit and absorb significant amount of radiant energy.

Radiation from Gases Differs From Solids:

The radiation from gases differs from solids in the following ways:
• The radiation from solids is at all wavelengths, whereas gases radiate over
specific wavelength ranges or bands within the thermal spectrum.
• The intensity of radiation as it passes through an absorbing gas decreases
with the length of passage through the gas volume. This is unlike solids wherein
the absorption of radiation takes place within a small distance from the surface.
 MEAN BEAM LENGTH

For hemispherical gas volumes of radius L,

radiating to an elemental surface at the centre of
the base as shown in fig

However, for other shapes, mean beam length

can be calculated by

V
Lm  3.6 
A

Where,
V- Volume of gas
A-Surface area of gas
 A gas is enclosed in a body at a temperature of 7270C The mean beam length of the
gas body is 3 m. The partial pressure of water vapour is 0.2 atm and the total pressure
is 2 atm. Calculate the emissivity of water vapour.
Given
Temperature T = 7270C +273 =1000K
Mean beam length Lm = 3m From HMT data book, Page no.107, we
Partial pressure of water vapour can find emissivity of H2O
PH2O=0.2 atm
Total pressure P= 2atm

To find:
Emissivity of the water vapour  H 2O

Solution:

PH 2O  Lm  0.2  3 From graph,

PH 2O  Lm  0.6 m atm
Emissivity of H2O =0.3
To find correction factor for H20
From graph,
PH 2O  P Correction factor for H2O =1.36
0.2  2
  1 .1 CH2O=1.36
2 2
Emissivity of H2O,εH2O =0.3 ×1.36
PH 2O  P =0.408
 1 .1
2

PH 2O Lm  0.6

From HMT data book, Page no.108 (Sixth

edition), we can find correction factor for H2O).
A gas mixture contains 20% CO2 and 10% H20 by volume. The total pressure is 2 atm. The
temperature of the gas is 9270C. The mean beam length is 0.3 m. Calculate the emissivity of the
mixture.

Given:
Partial pressure of CO2,PCO2=20%=0.2 atm
Partial pressure of H2O,PH2O=10%=0.1 atm
Total pressure P =2 atm
Temperature T = 9270C +273 =1200K
Mean beam length Lm = 0.3m

To find:
Emissivity of mixture εmix
From HMT data book, Page no.1 05,
Solution
we can find emissivity of CO2,

Emissivity of CO2

PH 2O  Lm  0.2  3

PH 2O  Lm  0.06 m - atm
From graph, Emissivity of CO2 = 0.09 From graph, correction factor for CO2 is 1.25.
CCO2  1.25
 CO2  0.09

 CO2  CCO2  0.09  1.25

To find correction factor for CO2:  CO2  CCO2  0.1125

Total pressure P = 2 atm

PH 2O  Lm  0.06 m - atm
To find emissivity of H20 :
From HMT data book, Page no.106, we PH 2O  Lm  0.1  0.3
can find correction factor for CO2
PH 2O  Lm  0.03 m - atm

From HMT data book, Page no. 107, we can

find emissivity of H20.
From graph, Emissivity of H20 = 0.048
From graph,
 H 2O  0.048
Correction factor for H2O =1.39
CH2O=1.39
To find correction factor for H20
 H 2O  C H 2O  0.048  1.39
PH 2O  P 0.1  2
  1.05  H 2O  C H 2O  0.066
2 2
PH 2O  P
 1.05 Correction factor for mixture of CO2 and H2O :
2
PH 2O 0.1
PH 2O  Lm  0.03 m - atm 
PH 2O  PCO2 0.1  0.2
From HMT data book pg. no. 108 (Sixth
PH 2O
edition), we can find correction factor for H20.  0.333
PH 2O  PCO2

PCO2 Lm  PH 2O Lm  0.06  0.03

PCO2 Lm  PH 2O Lm  0.09
From HMT data book, Page no. 109 (Sixth
 mix  0.1125  0.066  0.002
edition), we can find correction factor for
mixture of CO2 and H20.  mix  0.1765

Result :
Emissivity of gaseous mixture  mix  0.1765

From graph,   0.002

Total emissivity of gaseous mixture

 mix   CO2 .CCO2   H 2O .C H 2O  

A furnace of 25 m2area and 12 m3 volume is maintained at a temperature of 9250C over its entire
volume. The total pressure of the combustion gases is 3 atm, the partial pressure of water
vapour is 0.1 atm and that of CO2 is 0.25 atm. Calculate the emissivity of the gaseous mixture.

Given: To find emissivity of CO2 :

Area A =25m2 PH 2O  Lm  0.25  1.72
Volume V=12m3
Temperature T= 925+273=1198K PH 2O  Lm  0.43 m - atm
Total pressure P=3 atm
Partial pressure of water vapour
PH2O=0.1atm
Partial pressure of CO2 PCO2= 0.25atm From HMT data book Page no . 105,
we can find emissivity of
To find:
Emissivity of mixture εmix

Solution:
We know, Mean beam length for gaseous
mixture
V 12
Lm  3.6   3.6 
A 25

Lm  1.72 m
 From graph,
From graph,
we findCCO2 =1.2
Emissivity of CO 2 ,  CO2  0.15
C CO 2   CO2  0.15  1.2

To find Correction factor for C CO 2   CO2  0.18

CO2 :
Total pressure P=3 atm

P CO 2 Lm  0.43 m - atm
To find emissivity of H20 :

From HMT data book, Page no.106 P H 2O Lm  0.1  1.72

we can find correction factor for CO2 P  0.172
H 2O Lm

From HMT data book, Page no. 107, we can

find. emissivity of H2O.
 From HMT data book, Page no. 108 (Sixth
From graph, edition), we can find correction factor for H20.

Emissivity of H 2O,  H 2O  0.15

To find correction factor of H20 :

PH 2O  P 0 .1  3
  1.55
2 2

PH 2O  P
 1.55
2 From graph, we find

P H 2O Lm  0.172 CH2O =1.58

C H 2O   H 2O  0.15  1.58

 0.237
Correction factor for mixture of CO2 and H2O :

PH 2O 0.1 From graph,   0.045


PH 2O  PCO2 0.1  0.25
Total emissivity of gaseous mixture
PH 2O
 0.285  mix   CO2 .CCO2   H 2O .C H 2O  
PH 2O  PCO2

PCO2 Lm  PH 2O Lm  0.25  1.72  0.1  1.72

 mix  0.18  0.237  0.045

PCO2 Lm  PH 2O Lm  0.602  mix  0.372

From HMT data book, Page no. 109 (Sixth

edition), we can find correction factor for
mixture of CO2 and H20.