Methods of Philosophizing

METHODS OF
PHILOSOPHIZING
LET’S PONDER
Which of the following statements are TRUE?
1. The sun is the center of the solar system.
2. Asia is the largest continent in the world.
3. God made the world in seven days.
4. Man has the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
5. China’s continued presence in the Spratlys is a violation of
international law.
6. A person must always consider the interests of his or her
family before his or her own happiness.
7. The President has done very little to uphold democracy and
look after the interests of the Filipino People
In today’s society, we encounter a lot of information
from various sources such as the media and our interactions
with friends, family and members of the community. Most of
the information we receive is helpful, but some may mislead
us or may even be utterly false.
In some cases, innocent individuals become targets

of harassment because of false claims and testimonials
issued online. Every day we are confronted with news,
claims and announcements from our peers, family
members, figures of authority, the government, and media.
How do we know if they are telling the truth?

Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth.
Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry. Knowledge must be
truthful to gain validity and acceptance.
Statements about the world or reality are called

propositions and these propositions may or may not carry
truth. Propositions are usually stated as short statements or
sentences.
What is truth and why is it important?
Before we discuss truth, it is important to clarify

knowledge, since it is through knowing that we are able to
determine what is true.
Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of

something. It is the product of questions that allow for clear
answers provided by facts. Our knowledge is comprised of ideas
and beliefs that we know to be true.
Propositions or statements which are observed to be real or

truthful are considered facts.
There are statements, however, that are not evidently or
immediately known to be true. For example, we can say that “I
know that my school is the best school in the province”. This
statement, however, cannot be taken as true since it is simply not
immediately evident. This statement is a claim, and further
examination is required to establish whether it is true or false.
Truthful statements, therefore, can be considered as based

on facts. Science considers truth as something observable and
empirical.
Truth and Opinion
An opinion is a statement of judgment of a person

about something in the world.
Opinions are statements of judgment that are in

need of further justification, opinions will have to
be defended with better reasons to strengthen
them .
How to critically examine opinions:
We have shown that in order for an opinion to gain the

status of truth , it must be able to pass the test of justification. In
other words, whoever makes the opinion must be able to argue
for it in the most reasonable way. A philosophical mind
must then be prepared to examine arguments supporting an
opinion.
An argument is a group of statements that serve to

support a conclusion. It is composed of a claim and a
premise.
We call fake arguments as “fallacies”. Fallacies are
group of statements that appear to be arguments, but fail to
support the conclusion.
They usually come in the guise of well articulated

arguments. If you are not keen and critical enough, they can
pass your tests of justification with no difficulty at all. This
is why it is important to know what these fallacies look like.
TYPES OF FALLACIES
ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM (Argument against the
Person
This is a fallacy used when people convince others
that someone’s argument should be rejected because of the
person’s personal background – his history, nationality, race,
socio-economic status, family, associations, religion, and
other circumstances.
This argument is considered fallacious because the

rightness or wrongness of a claim should not be affected by
the background of the person claiming it.
ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM ( Appeal to Force)
This is an argument used by people who want to win a

conflict by issuing threats to their opponent.
Why is this argument fallacious? It is problematic because

instead of convincing the other person that you are right by
giving good reasons, you force them to accept whatever you
say. The listeners are made to say “yes” to your claim even if
in their right minds they know that your argument is foolish
ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM (Appeal to Pity)
This fallacy is also called appeal to emotion. It is an

argument used by people who want to win people
over by manipulating their emotions. This is a
favorite tactic of politicians during campaign
periods.
ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM ( Bandwagon Fallacy)
This fallacious argument is a favorite marketing strategy by

advertising agencies. It is used by appealing to the popular
sentiment of the public. If they want their product to sell, they
will get the most popular personalities to model their product.
This results to fans and avid followers of those personalities
buying the product.

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METHODS OF

In some cases, innocent individuals become targets

How do we know if they are telling the truth?

Statements about the world or reality are called

Before we discuss truth, it is important to clarify

Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of

Propositions or statements which are observed to be real or

Truthful statements, therefore, can be considered as based

An opinion is a statement of judgment of a person

Opinions are statements of judgment that are in

We have shown that in order for an opinion to gain the

An argument is a group of statements that serve to

They usually come in the guise of well articulated

This argument is considered fallacious because the

This is an argument used by people who want to win a

Why is this argument fallacious? It is problematic because

This fallacy is also called appeal to emotion. It is an

This fallacious argument is a favorite marketing strategy by

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