Module 1:

Cells as the Basis of

Life
 Cell Structure:
Inquiry Question:
What distinguishes one
cell from another?
 Cell Structure:
• investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to:
• examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell's
structure and function.
• investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including
but not limited to:
• drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells
• comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements
• modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the
cell membrane
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

Cells can be unicellular (single celled) or

multicellular (multi celled).
 Prokaryotes

‘Pro’ means before, ‘karyon’ means ‘nucleus.’

They are unicellular organisms including Archaea
and bacteria.
Prokaryotes are very small
and can be found
everywhere.
 Eukaryotes

‘Eu’ means true, ‘karyon’ means ‘nucleus.’

Eukaryotes are larger and more complex. They are
multicellular organisms
including plants and
animals. They can be
divided into protists,
fungi, plants and animals.
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
No membrane bound Membrane bound
organelles organelles
No nucleus Nucleus present
DNA is circular in shape DNA is linear in shape and
and contained in plasmids is found in the nucleus
Smaller Larger by up to 10 times
Cell size 0.1-5μm Cell size 10-100μm
E.g. Cyanobacteria E.g. Humans
 Endosymbiosis Theory
• Provides an explanation for how eukaryotic cells
could have evolved from prokaryotic cells.
• Theory states that some large prokaryotic cells
engulfed some small bacteria and they lived as
symbionts.
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts both contain
their own DNA that is arranged in a similar way
to prokaryotes.
Parts of a Cell
 Parts of a Cell
Organelle Animal, Plant or Both
Nucleus Both
Vacuole Both – larger in plants,
smaller/temporary in animals
Chloroplast Plants only
Mitochondria Both
Cell wall Plants only
Cell membrane Both
 Nucleus

A large organelle surrounded by a double-layered

membrane. It contains most of the genetic
material, which is formed as DNA and proteins.
The nucleus is the control centre of the cell and
coordinates all the cells activities.
The nucleus contains the nucleolus
which makes ribosomes.
 Ribosome

Ribosomes are composed of two units. They are

tiny and therefore can only be seen with an
electron microscope. They compose of proteins
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and are the sites of
protein synthesis.
They are not a membrane-
bound organelle.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of intracellular
membranous sacs and tubules. It links with the cell
membrane and other membranous organelles.
Rough ER has ribosomes attached and actively produces
and exports proteins. Smooth
ER does not have ribosomes
attached, but contains enzymes
involved in the synthesis of
phospholipids.
 Golgi Apparatus
Also known as the golgi body is a stack of
flattened, smooth membrane
sacs. It is responsible for
bundling and packaging
macromolecules like proteins
and lipids as they are
synthesised within the cell.
 Lysosome
Lysosomes are specialised
for digestion and waste
removal. Sphere shaped
structure, that ingest
bacteria, broken cell parts
and other unwanted
materials.
 Mitochondria
Mitochondria are membrane bound organelles.
They are responsible for cellular
respiration. The highly
folded inner membrane
increases the surface
area over for which
chemical reactions
take place.
 Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles,
involved in photosynthesis. They contain the green
pigment chlorophyll. Inside chloroplasts are
thylakoids which are
disc-shaped.
Chloroplasts trap light
energy in the process
of photosynthesis.
 Vacuole
Vacuoles are membrane bound storage
compartments of a cell. Animal cells have many
small, temporary vacuoles. Plant cells contain a
single, large, permanent vacuoles.
Vacuoles in plants provide
structural support.
 Cell Wall
Cell wall is a rigid structure that surrounds the
cell membrane of plant cells, fungal cells and some
prokaryotic cells.
The cell wall provides
support for the cell.
 Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is a semi-permeable barrier
that controls the exchange of materials into and
out of the cell.
 Biological Drawings
• Use a pencil and ruler.
• Make it large.
• No sketching or shading.
• 2D only.
• Label written clearly.
• Title.
• Magnification.
• A scale.
 Biological Drawings
Working out the scale…For example;
Length of a red blood cell = 8μm; the length of
your drawing = 4cm
Actual length = 8μm
Length of drawing 4cm
Scale = 2μm
1cm
Therefore, 1cm in your drawing represents 2μm.
Technologies - Microscopes
Magnification: how
many times larger the
object becomes.
Resolution: degree of
detail.
With a light
microscope we can see
the cell wall, cell
membrane, cytoplasm
and nucleus of cells.
 Technologies - Microscopes

With electron microscopes we are able to see more

detail and therefore can see structures like the
chloroplast, mitochondria, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, nucleus (in more detail), golgi body etc.

Chloroplast electron
micrograph
Cell Membrane… in more detail
 Cell Membrane… in more detail

The Fluid Mosaic Model

• The membrane is selectively
permeable – allows only certain
molecules or ions into or out of the cell.
• It allows the concentration of substances inside
cells to remain constant compared to outside.
• It is called the fluid mosaic model as the
proteins floating on and in it create a ‘lipid sea.’
 Cell Membrane… in more detail

The Fluid Mosaic Model

• It has the ability to flow
and change shape.
• Protein molecules are embedded in various
patterns like a mosaic.
• Some proteins can move and others are fixed.
 Cell Membrane… in more detail

The Fluid Mosaic Model

• Each phospholipid has a head and a tail.
• One end is hydrophilic (water-liking).
• The other is hydrophobic
(water-hating).
 Cell Function:
Inquiry Question:
How do cells coordinate their
activities within their internal
environment and the external
environment?
 Cell Function:
•investigate the way in which materials can move into and out of cells, including but
not limited to:
• conducting a practical investigation modelling diffusion and osmosis
• examining the roles of active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis
• relating the exchange of materials across membranes to the surface-area-to-
volume ratio, concentration gradients and characteristics of the materials
being exchanged
•investigate cell requirements, including but not limited to:
• suitable forms of energy, including light energy and chemical energy in
complex molecules
• matter, including gases, simple nutrients and ions
• removal of wastes
•investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and the
removal of cellular products and wastes in eukaryotic cells
•conduct a practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells
•investigate the effects of the environment on enzyme activity through the collection
of primary or secondary data
 Movement in and out of cells
For substances to move in and out of cells it must
pass through the cell membrane which is semi-
permeable.
It is important for
materials to be
exchanged for cell
functioning and for
cells to communicate.
 Movement in and out of cells
Size, shape and the make up of the molecule can affect its permeability.
 Active and Passive Transport
Active transport:
• Requires energy.
• Generally against a
concentration gradient.
• E.g. the sodium and
potassium pump.
Passive transport:
• No energy required.
• Generally flows with the concentration gradient.
 Diffusion
Passive transport where particles move from an
area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration until equilibrium is reached.
 Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is required for large particles
to pass through the cell membrane e.g. glucose and
amino acids. These particles do not easily pass
through the cell membrane
and require carrier proteins
and channel proteins to
assist their movement.
 Osmosis
Passive transport where water molecules move
from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
(Water is the substance that is moving)
 Osmosis
Hypertonic – movement of water out of the cell.
Cell becomes flaccid.
Hypotonic – movement of water into the cell. Cell
becomes turgid
(full of water).
Isotonic –
equilibrium
(equal).
 Endocytosis
‘Endo’ = inside & ‘cyto’ = cell
Endocytosis is where large particles move into the cell
with the help of the cell membrane (active transport).
Three types of endocytosis:
1. Phagocytosis – particle is engulfed.
2. Pinocytosis – liquid is engulfed.
Endocytosis
 Exocytosis
‘Exo’ = outside & ‘cyto’ = cell
Exocytosis is where materials are transported from
the inside to the outside of
the cell in membrane bound
vesicles that fuse with the
plasma membrane.
 Surface Area to Volume Ratio
• The smaller the cell, the larger the SA:V, which
means the faster substances can reach the middle
of the cell. This is better than a small SA:V.
• As cell size increases, the SA:V decrease.
• Smaller cells can exchange matter with their
environment more efficiently.
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
Calculating SA:V
1. Calculate the surface area.
2. Calculate volume.
3. Calculate surface area divided by volume.
4. This will give you your ratio.
Example; a 5cm cube:
5. SA = (5x5)x6 = 150cm2
6. V = 5x5x5 = 125cm3
7. SA:V = 150/125 = 1.2
 Materials being Exchanged
Chemical factors:
• Uncharged molecules can easily pass through
the membrane.
• Water, sodium and potassium cannot pass
through. Water passes through the membrane
through aquaporins.
 Materials being Exchanged
Physical factors:
• Size and shape affect the ability of molecules
to move through the membrane.
• Small molecules can diffuse easily and large
molecules, like glucose, use carrier proteins to
assist their movement (endocytosis and
exocytosis).
 Cell Requirements
Cells require organic and inorganic molecules to carry out
activities.
Organic = containing carbon attached to hydrogen.
Inorganic = carbon (if present) is not attached to hydrogen’s.
Organic Inorganic
Carbohydrates Water
Lipids Oxygen
Proteins Carbon dioxide
Nucleic acids Nitrogen
Minerals
 Biochemical Processes

Photosynthesis
• Plants use light energy, and trap it in chlorophyll inside
the chloroplast.
• This is how plants make their own food (sugar – glucose).
 Biochemical Processes

Photosynthesis
Occurs in 2 stages:
1. Light dependent stage.
Chlorophyll captures sunlight (solar energy) and uses
it to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate). During this
stage water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen gas. This
stage occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the
chloroplast.
 Biochemical Processes

Photosynthesis
Occurs in 2 stages:
2. Light independent stage.
Also known as the dark reactions, produces glucose,
water and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). These reactions
do not require solar energy. ATP made in the first stage is
used to power the dark reactions. This occurs in the
stroma of the chloroplast.
Biochemical Processes

Photosynthesis
 Biochemical Processes

Cellular Respiration
• Organisms break down glucose as a source of
energy to drive cellular respiration.
 Biochemical Processes

Cellular Respiration
• Glycolysis is the first step to
breaking down glucose in the
cytosol, this produces two
ATP molecules.
• The second stage occurs in
the mitochondria and
releases 34 ATP molecules.
 Waste Products
Waste How it is produced? How it is removed?
Nitrogen The breaking down of Usually in solution or as a solid
containing waste proteins. (uric acid). Urea in solution can
e.g. urea, uric pass through pores in cells
acid etc.
Carbon dioxide Aerobic respiration Dissolves and diffuses out of
cells
Oxygen In plant cells carrying Diffuses out
out photosynthesis in
surplus of respiration
requirements
Water Through respiration Passes readily through protein
and surplus intake channels
Salts (ionic May result from Some can diffuse through the
 Enzymes

• Enzymes are protein molecules that control all

metabolic reactions in living cells.
• They control the rate of reactions (a biological
catalyst) – either speed up or slow down.
• There can be up to 1000 reactions, each of
these requires a specific enzyme (enzyme
specificity).
 Enzymes

• Enzymes do not get used up in the reaction and

can be reused.
• Enzymes have an active site
– this is the area the
substrate (the molecule
the enzyme acts on) will bind to.
• One enzyme will only catalyse one type of
reaction (enzyme specificity).
Enzymes
 Enzymes

2 accepted models for Enzymes:

1. Lock and Key model
 Enzymes

2 accepted models for Enzymes:

2. Induced fit model
 Enzymes

Enzymes require specific conditions in order to

function at optimal efficiency. Changes to these
conditions will mean they work slower or not at all.
Factors affecting enzyme activity:
• Temperature
• pH
• Substrate concentration
 Enzymes

Temperature
Enzymes within cells function best at the body
temperature of the organism they are found in (up to 40
degrees). E.g. humans body temperature is 37 degrees
celcius, this is why it is dangerous for us to fluctuate away
from this.
High temperatures cause the enzyme to change shape and
denature (therefore the enzyme can no longer bind to the
substrate). At low temperatures the enzyme activity slows.
Enzymes

Temperature
 Enzymes

pH
pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity (acidic or
basic).
Where an enzyme functions will determine its
optimal pH (e.g. pepsin, an enzyme in the stomach
has a pH of 2).
When outside its optimal pH the activity
decreases and at extremes it may denature.
Enzymes

pH
 Enzymes

Substrate Concentration
The higher the concentration of the substrate,
the greater the rate of enzyme reactions.
This is until all the available enzymes are used up
(saturation point).
 Enzymes

Substrate Concentration