Dr.

SWATI SRIVASTAVA, Class XII A, CHEMISTRY

 INTRODUCTION

The pursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within a

living system falls in the domain of biochemistry.

Living system is that it is

composed of non-living atoms and
molecules
 Living systems are made up of various complex
biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
acids, lipids, etc.
 Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents
of our food. BIO MOLECULES interact with each
other for carrying out life processes
 CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a
very large group of naturally occurring organic compounds.
 General formula, C (H O) , and were considered as hydrates of
x 2 y

carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived. NOT

ALL FIT INTO THIS CATEGORY(acetic acid, rhamnose,
C6H12O5 ).

 CARBOHYDRATES may be defined as optically active

polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which
produce such units on hydrolysis.
 Carbohydrates are also called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon
means sugar).
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
CARBOHYDRATES

MONOSACCHA OLIGOSACCH POLYSACCHA

RIDES ARIDES RIDES
 MONOSACCHARIDES
 Carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolysed
further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy
aldehyde or ketone.
 About 20 monosaccharides are known to
occur in nature.
 Examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
 OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 Carbohydrates that on hydrolysis yield two to ten
monosaccharide units.
 They are further classified as: disaccharides,
trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the
number of monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis.
 The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a
disaccharide may be same or different.
 Example are sucrose (one molecule of glucose and
fructose), maltose(two molecules of glucose), lactose (one
molecule of galactose and glucose )
 POLYSACCHARIDES
 Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis yield a large
number of monosaccharide units.
 Examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums,
etc.
 Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they
are also called non-sugars.
 REDUCING & NON-REDUCING
SUGARS
 Those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s
solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to as
reducing sugars.
 All monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are
reducing sugars.
 Those carbohydrates which do not reduce
Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent are
referred to as non reducing sugars.
MONOSACCHARIDES
 MONOSACCHARIDES
 Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis
of number of carbon atoms and the functional
group present in them.
 Monosaccharide which contains an aldehyde
group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains a
keto group, it is known as a ketose.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF
MONOSACCHARIDES

CARBON ATOMS CENTRAL TERM ALDEHYDE KETONE

3 Triose Aldotriose Ketotriose

4 Tetrose Aldotetrose Ketotetrose

5 Pentose Aldopentose Ketopentose

6 Hexose Aldohexose Ketohexose

7 Heptose Aldoheptose Ketoheptose

 GLUCOSE
Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form.

PREPARATION OF GLUCOSE
 From sucrose

If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or H2SO4 in

alcoholic solution, glucose and fructose are
obtained in equal amounts.
From starch

Glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch by

boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure
 STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE

 Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as

dextrose.
 It is the monomer of many of the larger
carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose
 Molecular formula was found to be C H O .
6 12 6

GLUCOSE
On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane,
suggesting that all the six carbon atoms are linked in
a straight chain.

Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and

adds a molecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin.
These reactions confirm the presence of a carbonyl group
(>C = O) in glucose.
Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid
(gluconic acid) on reaction with a mild oxidising agent
like bromine water. This indicates that the carbonyl
group is present as an aldehydic group.

Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose

pentaacetate which confirms the presence of five –OH
groups.
 On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic
acid both yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This
indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in
glucose.

FISCHER

Gluconic acid Saccharic acid

 Glucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose.
 ‘D’ before the name of glucose represents the
configuration whereas ‘(+)’ represents
dextrorotatory nature of the molecule.
 The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any
compound indicate the relative configuration of a
particular stereoisomer of a compound with respect
to configuration of glyceraldehyde.
 The –OH group lies on right hand side in the structure.
 All those compounds which can be chemically correlated
to ‘D’ (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have D-
configuration whereas those which can be correlated to
‘L’ (–) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have L—
configuration.
 In L (–) isomer –OH group is on left hand side as you can
see in the structure.
CYCLIC STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE
 Glucose does not give Schiff’s test and it does not
form the hydrogensulphite addition product with
NaHSO3.
 Penta-acetate of glucose does not react with
hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free -
CHO group.
 Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline
forms which are named as α and β. The α-form of
glucose (m.p. 419 K) is obtained by crystallisation
from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while
the β-form (m.p. 423 K) is obtained by
crystallisation from hot and saturated aqueous
solution at 371 K.
 Glucose forms a six-membered ring in which —OH
at C-5 is involved in ring formation. This explains
the absence of —CHO group.
 The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ
only in the configuration of the hydroxyl group at
C1, called ANOMERIC CARBON(the aldehyde
carbon before cyclisation). Isomers, i.e., α-form and
β-form, are called ANOMERS.
 ᾀ - Form : -OH group on C1 is on right side.
 β - Form : -OH group on C1 is on left side.
CYCLIC STRUCTURE OF
GLUCOSE
 HAWORTH STRUCTURE
 The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is
called pyranose structure (α– or β–), in analogy
with pyran.
 Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one
oxygen atom and five carbon atoms in the ring.
 The cyclic structure of glucose is more correctly
represented by Haworth structure.
 FRUCTOSE
 Fructose is an important ketohexose.
 It is obtained along with glucose by
the hydrolysis of disaccharide,
sucrose.

 Molecular formula C6H12O6

 It belongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory

compound. It is appropriately written as D-(–)-

fructose
 STRUCTURE OF FRUCTOSE
 It also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained
by the addition of —OH at C5 to the C=O group.
 The ring, thus formed is a five membered ring and is
named as furanose with analogy to the compound
furan.
 Furan is a five membered cyclic compound with one
oxygen and four carbon atoms.
CYCLIC STRUCTURE OF
FRUCTOSE
DISACCHARIDES
 Two monosaccharide units are joined together by an
oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule.
 The linkage between two monosaccharide units
through oxygen atom is called GLYCOSIDIC
LINKAGE.
 In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of
monosaccharides i.e., aldehydic or ketonic groups are
bonded, these are non-reducing sugars and sugars in
which these functional groups are free, are called
reducing sugars.
 SUCROSE (INVERT SUGAR)
 Sucrose on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-
(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose.
 Two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic
linkage between C1 of α-D-glucose and C2 of β-D-
fructose.
 Non reducing sugar, as reducing groups of glucose and
fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation.
 WHY INVERT SUGAR???????
 Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives
dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose.
 The laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than
dextrorotation of glucose (+ 52.5°), the mixture is
laevorotatory.
 As hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the
sign of rotation, from dextro (+) to laevo (–) and the
product is named as INVERT SUGAR.
 MALTOSE
 Composed of two α-D-glucose units in which C1 of
one glucose is linked to C4 of another glucose unit .
 Reducing sugar as free aldehydic group can be
produced at C1 of second glucose in solution
 LACTOSE (MILK SUGAR)
 Composed of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose.
 Linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose.
 Reducing sugar, as free aldehydic group may be
produced at C-1 of glucose unit.
POLYSACCHARID
ES
 STARCH
 Main storage polysaccharide of plants.
 Most important dietary source for human beings.
 High content of starch is found in cereals, roots,
tubers and some vegetables.
 Starch is a polymer of α-glucose.

Amylose
Components
Starch
of Starch
Amylopectin
 CELLULOSE
 Occurs exclusively in plants.
 Predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells.
 Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide composed
only of β-D-glucose units which are joined by glycosidic
linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and C4 of next
glucose unit.
 GLYCOGEN
 The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as
glycogen.
 Glycogen is also known as animal starch because its
structure is similar to amylopectin.
 It is present in liver, muscles and brain.
 When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the
glycogen down to glucose.
 Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES

 Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and

animals. They form a major portion of our food.
 Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as
starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
 Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose.
 It provide raw materials for many important industries
like textiles, paper, lacquers and breweries.
 PROTEINS
 Most abundant biomolecules of the living system.
Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses,
peanuts, fish, meat, etc.
 They are also required for growth and maintenance
of body.
 The word protein is derived from Greek word,
“proteios” which means primary or of prime
importance.
 All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.
 Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–
COOH) functional groups.

 Depending upon the relative position of amino group

with respect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be
classified as α, β, γ and so on.
 Only α-amino acids are obtained on hydrolysis of
proteins.
 Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter
symbol, sometimes one letter symbol is also used.
 CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS

 Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or

neutral depending upon the relative number of
amino and carboxyl groups in their molecule.
 Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups
makes it neutral.
 More number of amino than carboxyl groups
makes it basic.
 More carboxyl groups as compared to amino
groups makes it acidic.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO
ACIDS

AMINO ACIDS

NON-
ESSENTIAL ESSENTIAL
AMINO ACIDS AMINO ACIDS

cannot be synthesised in can be synthesised in

the body and must be the body
obtained through diet
 PROPERTIES OF AMINO
ACIDS
 Colourless and crystalline solids.
 Water-soluble and high melting solids.
 Behave like salts rather than simple amines or
carboxylic acids. This is due to the presence of both
acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group) groups
in the same molecule.
 In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a
proton and amino group can accept a proton, giving rise
to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is neutral but
contains both positive and negative charges.

 In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric

behaviour as they react both with acids and bases.
 Except glycine, all other naturally occurring α-
amino acids are optically active, since the α-
carbon atom is asymmetric.
 Most naturally occurring amino acids have L-
configuration.
 L-Amino acids are represented by writing the –
NH2 group on left hand side.
 STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

 Proteins are the polymers of α-amino acids

and they are connected to each other by
peptide bond or peptide linkage.
 Peptide linkage is an amide formed between
–COOH group and –NH group. 2
 Dipeptide is made up of two amino acids.
For example, when carboxyl group of one
amino acid combines with the amino group
of other amino acid, we get a dipeptide.
 When the number of such amino acids is more
than ten, then the products are called polypeptides.
 A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid
residues, having molecular mass higher than
10,000u is called a protein.

Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to

be called proteins if they ordinarily have a well
defined conformation of a protein such as insulin
which contains 51 amino acids
 STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
It can be studied at four different levels, i.e., primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary.

PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

 Each polypeptide in a protein

amino acids linked with each

other in a specific sequence

which give rise to the primary

structure of that protein.

 Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence of amino
acids creates a different protein.
 SECONDARY STRUCTURE OF
PROTEINS
 It refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain
can exist.
 They exist in two different types of structures:
α-helix

β-pleated sheet structure

 The structures arise due to the regular folding of the

backbone of the polypeptide chain due to hydrogen
 α-Helix is the one in which a
polypeptide chain forms all possible
hydrogen bonds by twisting into a
right handed screw (helix) with the
–NH group of each amino acid residue
Hydrogen bonded to the C=O of an
adjacent turn of the helix.
 β-pleated sheet consists of structure all peptide
chains are stretched out to nearly maximum
extension and then laid side by side which are
held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
The structure resembles the pleated folds of
drapery and therefore known as β-pleated sheet.
TERTIARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
 It represents overall folding of the polypeptide chains i.e.,
further folding of the secondary structure.
 It gives rise to two major molecular shapes:

FIBROUS and GLOBULAR

 Main forces which stabilise the

2° and 3° structures of proteins:

hydrogen bonds
disulphide linkages
vanderWaal forces
electrostatic forces of attraction.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS

 cv
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
 Proteins that are composed of two or more polypeptide
chains referred to as sub-units.
 The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect
to each other is known as quaternary structure.
 DENATURATION OF PROTEINS
When a protein in its native form, is subjected to
physical change like change in temperature or chemical
change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are
disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix get
uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity.
 During denaturation, secondary and tertiary
structures are destroyed but primary structure
remains intact.
 Example:
coagulation of egg white on boiling
curdling of milk
INTEXT QUESTIONS
 VITAMINS
A group of organic compounds which are essential for
normal growth and nutrition and are required in small
quantities in the diet because they cannot be synthesized
by the body.
CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
 VITAMINS, SOURCES AND DEFICIENCY
DISEASES
SI. No. Name of Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases
01. Vitamin A Fish liver oil, Xerophthalmia
carrots, butter and (hardening of cornea of
milk eye), Night blindness

02. Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appe-

(Thiamine) vegetables and tite, retarded growth)
cereals

03. Vitamin B2 Milk, eggwhite, liver, Chellosis (fisuring at

(Riboflavin) kidney corners of mouth and
lips), digestive
disorders and burning
sensation of the skin.

04. Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg Convulsions

(Pyridoxine) yolk, cereals and
grams
SI. No. Name of Vitamins Sources Deficiency
diseases
05. Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and curd Pernicious
anaemia (RBC
deficient in
haemoglobin)
06. Vitamin C(Ascorbic Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding
acid) green leafy vegetables gums)

07. Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, fish Rickets (bone

and egg yolk deformities in
children) and
osteo-malacia
(soft bones and
joint pain in
adults)
08. Vitamin E Vegetable oils(wheat, Increased
germ oil, sunflower oil) fragility of RBCs
& muscular
weakness
09. Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood
clotting time
NUCLEIC
ACIDS
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for
heredity, are called chromosomes, which are made up of
proteins and other type of biomolecules called nucleic
acids.
 They are mainly of two types:
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 As nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides,
so they are also called polynucleotides.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose
sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogen containing
heterocyclic compounds (called bases).
 In DNA molecules, the sugar moiety is β-D-2-
deoxyribose whereas in RNA molecule, it is β-D-ribose.
 DNA contains four bases:

adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T).

 RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are
same as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U).
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
 PHOSPHODIESTER LINKAGE
 Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester
linkage between 5′ and 3′ carbon atoms of the pentose
sugar.
 a covalent bond in RNA or DNA that holds a
polynucleotide chain together by joining a phosphate
group at position 5 in the pentose sugar of one
nucleotide to the hydroxyl group at position 3 in the
pentose sugar of the next nucleotide.
PHOSPHODIESTER BOND
 TYPES OF RNA
RNA molecules are of three types and they perform
different functions. They are:
 mRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid
sequence of a polypeptide.
 tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to
ribosomes during translation.
 rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: serve as structural
components of protein-making structures known as
ribosomes
INTEXT QUESTIONS