ECEG 4503

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Mr. N. Lakshman Pratap

 Syllabus
Chapter 1: Overview of Data Communication and
Computer networks
Theoretical basis of data communication; analog and
digital signals; Analog and digital data transmission;
protocol layers and services model, ISO-OSI reference
model, TCP/IP reference model
Chapter 2: Bandwidth utilization techniques
Multiplexing: FDM, WDM, TDM and spread spectrum
concepts.
Chapter 3: Transmission media & Signal encoding
Guided transmission media, wireless transmission,
Transmission Characteristics, analog signalling and
digital signalling.

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Data Communications and Computer Networks
 Chapter 4: Data link control protocols
Flow control, error control, sliding window protocol,
High-level data link control (HDLC)

Chapter 5: Network Classification and Data

Communication Services
Local Area Networks: Ethernet IEEE 802.3: CSMA/CD
protocol, Wide Area Network: Circuit switching and
packet switching, wireless network: Bluetooth.

Chapter 6: Internetworking with TCP/IP

IP addresses, routing algorithms, routing in the
Internet: ARP and RARP, TCP and IPv6 protocols,
Internet applications: DNS, email, FTP, SNMP.

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 Chapter 1
Overview of Data Communication
and Computer networks

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 What is Data Communications
Data communications deals with the transmission of
signals in a reliable and efficient manner.

Networking deals with the technology and

architecture of the communications networks used to
interconnect communicating devices.

Data communications between remote parties can be

achieved through a process called networking,
involving the connection of computers, media, and
networking devices.
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Basic Communications model

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 Source
This device generates the data to be
transmitted; examples are telephones and
personal computers.

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 Transmitter
Usually, the data generated by a source system
are not transmitted directly in the form in which
they were generated. Rather, a transmitter
transforms and encodes the information in such
a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that
can be transmitted across some sort of
transmission system.
For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream
from personal computer and transforms that bit
stream into an analog signal that can be handled
by the telephone network.
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 Transmission system:
This can be a single transmission line or a complex
network connecting source and destination.
Receiver:
The receiver accepts the signal from the
transmission system and converts it into a form that
can be handled by the destination device.
For example, a modem will accept an analog signal
coming from a network or transmission line and
convert it into a digital bit stream.
Destination:
Takes the incoming data from the receiver.
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Email example

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 Data Representation
• Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit
pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets of
bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of
representing symbols is called coding. Today, the
prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses
32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any
language in the world.
• Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. the
number is directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations.
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• Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In
its simplest form, an image is composed of a
matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each
pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends
on the resolution. For example, an image can be
divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the
second case, there is a better representation of
the image (better resolution), but more memory
is needed to store the image.

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• Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of
sound or music. Audio is by nature different from
text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not
discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change
voice or music to an electric signal, we create a
continuous signal.
• Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a
picture or movie. Video can either be produced as
a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can
be a combination of images, each a discrete entity,
arranged to convey the idea of motion.
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 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital. The term
analog data refers to information that is
continuous; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states.
Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.
To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic signals.
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 Data can be analog or digital.
Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite number
of values in a range;
Digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.
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Comparison of analog and digital signals

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 In data communications, we commonly use
periodic analog signals and nonperiodic
digital signals.
Periodic analog signals can be classified
as simple or composite. A simple
periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler
signals. A composite periodic analog
signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.
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Note

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful

in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.

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The time domain and frequency domain
of three sine waves

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Attenuation of digital signals

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Advantages and Disadvantages
of Digital Signals
Generally cheaper
Less susceptible to noise
interference

Suffer more from

attenuation

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Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Data Signals Signaling Transmission

Communicati
Electric or Physical
on of data by
Entities that electromagn propagation
the
of the signal
convey etic propagation
along a
information representatio and
suitable
processing of
ns of data medium
signals

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Analog and Digital Data Transmission
All of the forms of information that are
discussed (voice, data, image, video) can be
represented by electromagnetic signals.
Depending on the transmission medium and
the communications environment, either
analog or digital signals can be used to convey
information.

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Analog and Digital Data Transmission
Any electromagnetic signal, analog or digital, is
made up of a number of constituent
frequencies. A key parameter that
characterizes the signal is bandwidth, which is
the width of the range of frequencies that
comprises the signal. In general, the greater
the bandwidth of the signal, the greater its
information-carrying capacity.

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Analog and Digital Data Transmission
A major problem in designing a communications
facility is transmission impairment. They are
attenuation, attenuation distortion, delay
distortion, and the various types of noise. The
forms of noise include thermal noise, inter
modulation noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise.
For analog signals, it introduce random effects
that degrade the quality of the received
information and may affect intelligibility.
For digital signals, it may cause bit errors at the
receiver.
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 Transmission Types
• Simplex
– Signals are transmitted in only one direction
– One station is transmitter and the other is
receiver

• Half duplex
– Both stations transmit, but only one at a
time
• Full duplex
– Both stations may transmit simultaneously
– The medium is carrying signals in both
directions at the same time
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Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex

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 Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is
unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other
can only receive.
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output.
The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of
the channel to send data in one direction.

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 Half-Duplex
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed
in both directions.
• When cars are travelling in one direction, cars going the
other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the
entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of
the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies
and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
• The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no
need for communication in both directions at the same
time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
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 Full-Duplex
• In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two way street
with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full-
duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of
the link with signals going in the other direction. This sharing can
occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between
signals travelling in both directions.
• When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both
can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is
used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two directions.
• Example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
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 Line configuration
• The physical layer is concerned with the
connection of devices to the media. In a point-
to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. Mesh
topology is used for this configuration.
• In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared
among several devices. Bus topology is used for
multipoint configuration.

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Point-to-point and Multipoint connections

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 What is a Computer network?
“an interconnected collection of autonomous
computers”
interconnected = able to exchange information

The connection need not be via a copper wire;

fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and
communication satellites can also be used

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Primary objective of computer
networks

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Business Applications of Networks
A network with two clients and one server.

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Business Applications of Networks
The client-server model involves requests and
replies.

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Examples of Computer Networks
(Local Area Networks)

(a) Bus (b) Ring

Two broadcast networks

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 Wide Area Networks
Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.

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 Wide Area Networks
A stream of packets from sender to receiver.

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 Wireless Networks

(a) Bluetooth configuration (b) Wireless LAN

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 Layered architecture terminology
• Services: set of primitives or operations that a
layer provides to the layer above it.
• Protocols: set of rules governing the format and
meaning of frames, packets, messages exchanged
between peers.
• Interface: It defines which primitive operations and
services the lower layer makes available to the
upper one.
• A set of layers and protocols is called network
architecture.
• A list of protocols used by a system , one per layer
is called a protocol stack.and Computer Netw
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 Protocol Hierarchies
To reduce their design complexity, most
networks are organized as a stack of layers
each one built upon the one below it. The
number of layers, the name of each layer, the
contents of each layer, and the function of
each layer differ from network to network.
The purpose of each layer is to offer certain
services to the higher layers, shielding those
layers from the details of how the offered
services are actually implemented.

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 Protocol Hierarchies
Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation
with layer n on another machine which is called
peer to peer communication.
But no data transferred directly between layers at
the same level. Data and control flow from one
layer to the layer below it until it reaches physical
layer. The rules and conventions used in this
conversation are collectively known as the layer n
protocol. Basically, a protocol is an agreement
between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.

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 Tasks involved in sending a letter
(example to understand layered architecture)

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 Reference Models
• The OSI Reference Model
• The TCP/IP Reference Model
• A Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

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 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. An ISO standard that
covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It
was first introduced in the late 1970s.

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

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The interaction between layers in the OSI

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An exchange using the OSI model

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Seven layers of the OSI model

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Physical layer

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Note

The physical layer is responsible

for movements of
individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.

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Data link layer

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Note

The data link layer is responsible

for moving
frames from one hop (node) to
the next.

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Hop-to-hop delivery

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Network layer

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Note

The network layer is responsible

for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination
host.

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Source-to-destination delivery

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Transport layer

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Note

The transport layer is responsible

for the delivery
of a message from one process to
another.

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Reliable process-to-process
delivery of a message

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Session layer

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Note

The session layer is responsible for

dialog
control and synchronization.

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Presentation layer

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Note

The presentation layer is

responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

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Application layer

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Note

The application layer is

responsible for
providing services to the user.

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Functionality at a glance

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 TCP/IP Model
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model. The original
TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four
layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to
OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is
made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.

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TCP/IP and OSI model

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 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

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Relationship of layers &addresses in TCP/IP

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OSI vs TCP/IP

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 TCP/IP Layers
The physical layer (Host-to-network) covers
the physical interface between a data
transmission device (e.g., workstation,
computer) and a transmission medium or
network. This layer is concerned with
specifying the characteristics of the
transmission medium, the nature of the
signals, the data rate, and related matters.

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 TCP/IP Layers
The network access layer is concerned with
access to and routing data across a network
for two end systems attached to the same
network. In those cases where two devices are
attached to different networks, procedures are
needed to allow data to traverse multiple
interconnected networks. This is the function
of the internet layer. The Internet Protocol (IP)
is used here to provide the routing function
across multiple networks. This protocol is
implemented not only in the end systems but
also in routers.
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 TCP/IP Layers
Regardless of the nature of the applications
that are exchanging data, there is usually a
requirement that data be exchanged reliably.
That is, we would like to be assured that all of
the data arrive at the destination application
and that the data arrive in the same order in
which they were sent. The mechanisms for
providing reliability are implemented by host-
to-host layer, or transport layer. The
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the
most commonly used protocol to provide this
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 TCP/IP Layers
Finally, the application layer contains the logic
needed to support the various user
applications. For each different type of
application, such as file transfer, a separate
module is needed that is peculiar to that
application.
The TCP/IP application layer is equivalent to
the combined session, presentation, and
application layers of the OSI model.

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 Thank Q
END of CHAPTER 1