Chapter 4: State, Government and Citizenship

• 4.1.Understanding State
• State can be defined as the politically organized society or
apolitical system.
• If we take society as a system, the state represents one of
the sub systems of the society-called the political system.
• The state refers to all institutions, agencies and agents that
operate within a given territorial space, have legitimate
power and authority over us, and can legitimately utilize
force as an ultimate sanction against us if we fail to accept
its rules or orders or resist its actions or act against it.
• In this sense, the state is an umbrella term that covers all
offices that make and enforce the collective decisions and
rule of a society.
 4.2 Elements of Modern States
• There are basically five essential elements that differentiate the
modern states from the traditionally organized political
systems.
1. Population:
• State is a community of persons. It is a human political
institution
• Since state is a human association it needs some number
of people
• Population can be more or less but it has to be there
• There is no definite limit for the size of population
essential for a State
• It has to be within a reasonable limit.
• There are States with very small populations like Malta,
Canada, Djibouti and others, and there are States like
China, India and others, with very large populations
•2. Territory:
• There is no state without territory of its own(it includes
land, water, air space and legations in a foreign land)
• State is a territorial unit. Territory often determines the
wealth and resources availability of a given country
• Definite territory is its essential component
• The size of the territory of a State can be big or small;
nevertheless it has to be a definite, well-marked
portion of territory.
 big state- Russia, india, Algeria, Brazil,
Ethiopia
 small sate- Lexumberg, Comoros, Malta,
Djibouti
 Boundary of state must be well marked out that no
two states claim over the same land
3. Government:
• The state exercises its sovereign power
through its government
• Government is the institutional aspects of the state.
• One can say that government is the machinery or the
arm of the state.
• In fact government is the traditional elements of the
state.
• The state cannot exist without government.
• It is the agent of state that is responsible for the
overall administrative affairs of the country.
4. sovereignty:
Refers to supreme and final legal authority
of and beyond which no legal authority
exists
Internal sovereignty-domestically rules &
decisions of state are final over other
institution
External sovereignty-state is autonomous in
its international relation, independence of
state
State voluntarily accepts rules of
international law. These cannot be forced
upon the State
5. recognition:
• State must be recognized by significant portion of
international community
• Recognition is by the state, international organization,
non-governmental organizations
• States are not self sufficient.
• Some are endowed with resources, some are not.
• Some may have the potential to growth but may not tap its resources
effectively due to lack of appropriate know-how or technology.
• The existence and development of one is highly dependent on the
supply of resources or technology from others.
• In such interdependent world recognition is vital elements of the
state.
• The existence a state and, its government and peoples need to be
recognized by others so that it can enter into diplomatic and trade
relations.
 4.3. Contending Theories on the Origin of States
• it should be noted that the exact nature of the origin
of state is not yet precisely known and continues to
be a subject for scholarly discussion and debate.

• Nevertheless, there is a broader consensuses among

scholars that advanced civilization, with their
resultant political organizations in the human society,
can be traced back as 5,000 B.C during that time,
large scale political organizations and state systems,
for which there are recorded history, developed
particularly in the Tigris, Euphrates and Nile valleys
and latter in the valleys of the great river of China.
 Emergence,…..
• The emergence of organized societies in these areas was
because of the importance of the great rift valleys that
facilitated crop production (cultivation) and surplus production
in those times.
• In effect, the transition of human society in the process of crop
cultivation and production is a significant step towards
civilization and the rise of politically organized human societies.
• The argument is, therefore, that the rise of agriculture mode of
economy around the great river basins encouraged permanent
settlement of people there by leading to the creation of states.
• Anthropological evidence-state existed since the beginning of
human history
• Rudimentary forms of state clan, tribe, family has similar
feature and role with modern state
i) The Natural or genetic Theory:
 This theory view the state as natural to organized and settle
social life.
 It is based on sociological facts
 The theory claims that the state gradually evolved out of earliest
forms of self led low life communities, such as the family, the clan
and the tribe.
 State is eventual extension of family system
 Aristotle says, there are two instinct in the formation of state
1. reproductive instinct(unite men & women together)
2. self-preservation(master and slave come together)
 family is the first stage in the formation of state
 The second stage arrived when several families are united and
form village which is a union of families of common decent
 Family-extended family-clan or tribe-village-community -state
ii) The Divine Right Theory:
 Divine Right of Kings, ancient doctrine that sovereigns are
representatives of God and derive their right to rule directly from
God.
 This theory claims the state to be a divine creation. In this sense,
the state is seen as an instrument created by God, and rulers are
regarded as God’s own representatives or agents on earth.
 That is, it is of God’s will that in human society some are born to
rule while other are born to be ruled.
 Furthermore, the divine right theory asserts that the social order,
in which the position of the individual is determined hierarchically
on the basis of birth, was God-given and thus immutable.
 So that, there were many kings considered themselves and their
male descendents to be elected by God to rule over the rest of the
society, where they consider women as subjects, not citizens.
 Devine,…
• The Divine right theory served as a theoretical justification
for the power of the feudal- emperors of Europe during the
middle ages and in other areas where feudalism pre-
dominated.
• The concept was formulated from the theocracies of the
East. Before the Reformation, the monarch was considered
God's representative in all secular matters.
• This theory, however, neglected the historical part that the
reality of politics and state structural are the results of every
day humans interactions and relation but also highly
dynamic.
• Finally, however, the upheavals of the religious Reformation
and the intellectual Renaissance led to many rational
theories about the origin of state.
 iii) The Social Contract Theory:
• The social contract theory holds that the state is an artificial creation
based on the voluntary agreement or contract among people.
• In sharp contradiction to the Divine theory, it developed as
arguments from the doctrine of popular sovereignty.
• According to this theory it proceeds from the basic assumption that
a state of nature once existed where people possessed absolute
natural rights and where free from any kind of restraints on their
activity.
• There was unfettered freedom but, as a consequence, there were no
guarantees of safety and security for people and their possessions.
• Total anarchy and chaos prevailed. And the strong possessed and
exploit the weak.
• Tiring of this unorganized and insecure existence, people entered in
to natural agreements to which they appeared to surrender their
freedom in return for security.
 Social Contract,…
• The social contract theory holds that governments are
created by the people in order to provide for collective
needs (such as safety from crime, invasion, and natural
disasters) that cannot be properly satisfied using purely
individual means.
• Governments thus exist for the purpose of serving the
needs and wishes of the people, and their relationship with
the people is clearly stipulated in a "social contract" (a
constitution and a set of laws) which both the government
and the people must abide by.
• If a majority is unhappy, it may change the social contract.
• If a minority is unhappy, it may persuade the majority to
change the contract, or it may opt out of it by emigration
or secession.
 Social Contract…
• This theory is based on the idea that all men live in a state of
nature which is not ideal to perfect harmony.
• It is also an agreement among the members of an organized
society or between the governed and the government defining
and limiting the rights and duties of each.
• One of the most influential theories of government in the
past two hundred years has been the social contract, on which
modern democracy and most forms of socialism are founded.
• Contemporary liberalism such as in the United States also
tends to work under a social contract theory.
• Thomas Hobbes, Johan Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and
Thomas Jefferson are four of the most famous philosophers
of utilitarianism
• It must be borne in mind that the social contract covers two different forms of
contract.
• The first is what may be called the social contract proposal, the part in which
people in state of nature decided to establish an organized society or the formal
state.
• The second form may appropriately be called the natural rights contract, in
which the people prescribe the condition under which the government of the state
will operates.
• According to this theory- since the state is established by consent of the people, its
main purpose is to protect and safeguard people’s inalienable rights such as the
right to life, liberty, and property.
• The social contract theory was further developed in the age of revolutions in the
fight against rule of absolute monarchies.
• This theory advocates popular sovereignty, limited government and individual
rights.
• Hominine this theory gives priority to the individual over society. The main
problem of this theory is it is difficult to reconcile the contradiction between its
individualistic premises as the individual is born in to society and is intimately
tied to it in many ways.
iv) The Force Theory:
• Is a theory, particularly popular among some German
thinkers of the 19th century.
• It says state originated as a result of force by the strong over
the weak.
• Strong and powerful individuals established their way over
the weak, settle them on a specific territory and arrogated to
themselves the power of governing.
• So, the theory also relates the emergence of states to wars and
conflicts that have been endemic in the history of human
beings.
• Accordingly wars of conquest resulted in the occupation of
more and more territories and coercion of the weak by the
strong hence military might and physical strength of a society
is considered to be of paramount importance for the creation
and consolidation of the state.
 Force,…
• the fact that governments, along with private property,
originated from the authority of warlords and despots who took,
by force land as their own (and began exercising authority over
the people living on that land).
• Thus, it is sometimes argued that governments exist to enforce
the will of the strong and oppress the weak, maintaining and
protecting the privilege of a ruling class.
• It states that the government emerged when all the people of an
area were brought under the authority of one person or group.
• Although the state can and use force, military might and
physical force alone cannot explain the complex phenomenon
of political systems, for mere force cannot maintain lasting
relationships between, the rulers and the ruled
v) The Marxist Theory:
historically, the state was originated from the split of society in
to two classes with sharp and polarized economic interests.
• The formation of social classes is associated with the
emergence of private property the rise of the state with its
agent, the government established to make laws is, therefore,
directly related with the urgency of private property and the
need to safeguard it.
• This means that the state in its function is a partisan political
organization that stands for the interest of the rich against the
poor.
• Marx felt that the state at any time reflects the value of its
dominant classes and that the government of a rich state,
therefore, only acts to perpetuate the interests of these
classes.
• Thus, the proponents of the Marxist theory believe that
with the historical process of disappearance of private
property and antagonistic social class, the state will wither
away(vanish).
• Congruently communism an envisioned social system,
where everybody will be equal and all get whatever they
want, would prevail.
• Although its proponents and followers struggled hard to
resume the visions of communism for almost a centuries,
to the equality and fulfillment of wants has not been
materialized.
• On the contrary in recent years, political systems, which
were established on the visions of communism, have
crumbled one after another.
 State Structures
• In terms of the patterns of power distribution among the central and local or
sub-national government, states can be classified in to two: Unitary state and
Federal state
1) Unitary State
• In Unitary states, authority and power are focused exclusively on the central
government.
• A unitary state involves the separation of powers horizontally Yet, it doesn’t
constitutionally permit the separation of power vertically,
• All major policies and principles of administration originate from the center.
• In Unitary state, local governments exist only as mere agents of the central
authority.
• The span of their authority, the duration of tenure of office and even their
very legal existence are determined directly through continuous legislation
by the central government.
• In unitary state, the functions, resources, powers and even boundaries of
local governments continuously change at the discretion of the central
government.
• Unitary state doesn’t necessarily implies to high centralization
 Merits of Unitary State Structure
• Typically a unitary state structure is best suitable to states that
have small population (in terms of size and diversity) and small
geographical area.
• The following, generally, are the merits of unitary state
structure.
1)Unitary System is Strong in Maintaining National
Integration:
• Unitary system is strong and powerful as compared to the
federal set-up.
• Central government strongly controls all the state affairs with a
unified command.
• It saves the country from breakage and maintains its integrity,
solidarity and prestige.
• This system causes national integration. All powers belong to a
single central government.
 2. Simple Form of Government Structure:
Unitary system is very simple in structure because there is a
single administrative system throughout the state.
There is central legislature, executive and judiciary that are
easily understandable.
In federation, structure of the system is very complicated and
expensive because of two different sets of governments.
Unitary system is based on the principle of single administration
that is cheap and can easily be dealt.
3.Uniform Laws: (conflicts of jurisdiction avoided)
Because of a central unified command, all kinds of laws,
administrative policies and functions are uniform throughout the
state and there is no any sort of tension and disturbance within
the state.
Single government runs state administration with single and
unified command. People never agitate for the laws are uniform
in the entire country.
4.Less Expensive(duplication of civil servant is rare)
 In unitary form of government there is no large number of
legislators and ministers and there are no assemblies at the
center and local level therefore expenditures of these
institutions are small compared to federal systems.
• This system is not a burden on the national treasury. Its
expenses are less and output is more.

5.Flexible System:
• Another advantages of unitary system is that the constitution is
always flexible that may be amended according to changing
conditions and needs.
• A system adopted according to the need of time and people
desires, remains stable and successful.
 Demerits of Unitary state structure
1) Urban Supremacy( suppress local voices):
Central government has no knowledge of the
problems and needs of the far rural areas.
• It is a structure where state administration is
practically in the control of the urban citizens.
• For this reason, government services and
influence is always confined to cities.
• But, remote rural areas can be dealt effectively
by the federal system.
2)Despotism in Government
 In unitary system, central government has a centralized
command and centralization of authority is itself a
problem.
 Since there are no sub-ordinate governments to have
check on the center, therefore central government
becomes totalitarian and despotic.
 So despotism is the disadvantage of unitary form of
government.
 On the contrary, federal structure provides opportunities
to levels of government to have check upon each other.
3) It overburdens central legislature
 2. Federal State Structure
• Most scholars seem to agree that federalism is a devise for
organizing two or more levels of government that assume different
sets of responsibilities and manage the affairs of a country.
• This is called devolution of power.
• That is, a Federal State structure is a political arrangement where
powers are dispersed between levels of government.
• power of a state is formally (constitutionally) divided among
different level of government, each of which is legally supreme over
its own sphere.
• The defining features of a federal state structure are:
i) there are two levels of government that rule the same land and
people;
ii) each level has at least one area of action in which it is autonomous;
and
iii) Supreme written constitution to allocates duties, rights, and
privileges to each level of government.
 Federal State,…
• Most large states, with few exceptions like china, are
federal.
• Usually multi-ethnic states do also adopt the federal
structure.
• You should note that the form of federalism in all states is
not necessarily the same.
• States apply different principles and reasons for federation.
• Similarly, the degree of autonomy exercised at local
(regional) levels is not the same in all cases.
• In some states, the central government retains greater degree
of power as compared to local governments.
• In others yet, the local or regional governments could be
very influential and powerful with greater autonomy.
• In federal states there are three types of powers namely absolute,
concurrent and residual powers.
1) Absolute powers
powers exclusively given to either of the levels of government.
It is common for federal governments to have exclusive
authority on some important national affairs.
As basics, the federal government has the power to make and
enforce laws for the whole country which are in contrast with
local governments.
There are also responsibilities usually granted only to federal
government such as
 setting up and maintaining national defense force
 determining fiscal policy and controlling National Bank
(including printing money and minting coins), and
 exercising international diplomacy, including the right to sign
binding treaties.
2) Concurrent powers
Powers that are granted equally to both levels of
governments.
Examples: collecting tax and defending national/federal
constitution is the responsibility of both levels.
3)Residual Powers:
 These are authorities that are not given absolutely to any
of the levels of government or concurrently to both levels
of government.
1995 FDRE constitution in its article 52 (1) verified that: “all
powers not given expressly to the federal government
alone, or concurrently to the federal government and the
regional states are reserved to the states.”
powers which are not clearly specified in the constitution
are usually mandates of the regional states.
 Rationales for Federalism
1) Political Factors: in the first place, federations may foster
peace, secure from war and fear of war.
• State can join federation to become gently powerful enough
to dissuade external aggression.
• Secondly, federal arrangements may protect individuals
against political authorities by constraining both central and
state sovereignty, placing limited power with them.
2) Economic Factors: federations boost natural resources and
federal states may become economically powerful.
3) Social Factors: the best state structure in an ethnically
diverse country is federalism.
This system provides each sub-unit to practice and promote its
culture, the right to develop its language and preserve its
history.
 Merits of federal state structure
 Essential for large and heterogeneous state
 Provides opportunities for local government
to treat local affairs locally
 Check the power of government/federalism
divides & limits power
 Relieve central legislature(division of work)
 Disadvantages of Federalism
 There is duplication of civil servants &
activities which requires additional expense
 Division of power between central and
regional government lead to conflict of
jurisdiction
 4.2. Government
• Government : one among essential element
of state which acts on behalf of state, a
means in which state policy enforced
• refers to the collective existence of the
three separately instituted organs.
• The function is to keep peace and order of
the society.
• refer a group of individuals and institutions
authorized to formulate public policies and
conduct the affairs of the state.
The difference between government & other
forms of organizations
• Comprehensive authority: rules made by other
organization is applies to the members only. but,
rules of government applies to all member of
society
• Involuntary membership: people initially become
citizen of a nation and subject to its rules without
any deliberate choice
• Authoritative rules: rules of government are
generally considered to be more binding upon all
member of societies
The Necessities and Functions of Government

• The necessity of government has been a subject

of endless debate among political philosophers.
• Aristotle, the purpose of the State/government is
to ensure good life
• Locke, the preservation of property which is
expressed as lives, liberties and estates.
• Smith, the duty to protect society from the
violence and invasion of other independent
societies; the duty to protect subjects from
injustice; and the duty of erecting and
maintaining certain public works and institutions.
Necessities of government….
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, the
purpose of the government is to provide the
greatest happiness to the greatest number of
individuals under its jurisdiction.
1. maintenance of law and order
2. management of conflicts
3. distribution and regulation of resources
4. protection of rights of citizens
5.providing public goods and services
 Organization of Government
1. Territorial based division b/n central and
subnational government(vertical)
2. Power based division/horizontal
Vertical arrangement
A. Central/national government-level of
government who controls overall affairs of
the state like states economic life ,trade,
transport, telecommunication, etc.
1.National unity: central gov’t articulates the interest of the
whole. that is the interest of the whole than various parts
2.uniformity: central government establish uniform laws and
public service that help people to move from one area to
another
3.equality: central gov’t rectify the inequality arise b/n
regions
4.prosperity: central government, for instance, can manage a
single currency, control tax, and spending policies with a view
to ensuring sustainable growth, and if necessary provide an
infrastructure in the form of roads, railways, air ports and so
 federation

Central
gov’t
Member state
Sub-national government: level of gov’t that exist below
national gov’t to administer their respective region
Reasons
1. participation: subnational gov’ts are effective in
providing opportunities for citizens to participate in the
political life of their communities
2. Responsiveness: subnational institutions are usually
closer to people and more sensitive to their need
3. Legitimacy: physical distance from gov’t affects
accessibility of its decisions. decisions made at local
level are more understandable
4. Liberty: serve as a means for check and balance
system, threatens to turn government into tyranny
against the individual
• “It is better a city to be governed by
good man than by good law”
Aristotle
 Horizontal Arrangement
• The Legislative Branch of Government
• It is representative assembly directly elected by the
people and is responsible for making state laws.
• It has different names in different states(parliama,
assembly, duma, congress)
• legislature is the supreme organ that appoints
members of the executive in the case of parliamentary
systems, in presidential form of government it is
considered as a power branch, which is equal to, and
independent of the executive/president.
 Functions of the legislature

1) Statue making/legislation. Every legislative has the power to

make statues.
2) Representation of citizenry: Assemblies/Parliaments play an
important representative role in providing a link between
government and the people.
3) Control of administration/executive organ: plays pivotal role
in checking and supervising the administrative organ of
government, i.e., the executive branch.
The leaders of the council of ministers (the president in presidential
system and prime minister in parliamentary form) are checked &
followed.
4) Constitutional making/ amending: The legislative body of the
government can play or have the function of constitutional
making/amending.
 Legislature
5) Electoral and deposing functions: The legislative body plays the
function of electing the Prime minister in a parliamentary form of
government.
In addition they also play voting on motion of “no confidence” to reelect
and defeat the incumbent prime minister, etc.
• Added to this is that, in a presidential system, the legislative body
plays the role of removal the president by the principle of
impeachment.
6) Financial functions: The legislative body holds the “power of the
purse”, i.e., to determine the nature and amount of taxes and
appropriations.
7) Investigative functions: Most often, legislatives through established
“selective committees” are engaged in digging up information it
desires on maters not covered by its “legal standing committee.” For
example, in Ethiopia, the legislative body (the parliament) plays this
role by establishing “commission of inquiry” to investigate to any
 The Executive Branch of Government
• executive is the branch of government responsible for
the implementation or enforcement of laws and
policies made by the legislature
• In its coverage, the executive branch extends from the
head of government to the members of enforcement
agencies such as police and the military, and includes
both ministers and civil servants
• The executive is the irreducible core of government.
members of the executive have been categorized in
one of two ways.
• First a distinction is often drawn between the ‘chief
executive’ and the ‘executive’ based on the levels of
status and responsibility that have been identified with
 Hierarchical structure of executives

• Hierarchically the executive is, commonly, categorized into

two, the chief executive and executive.
• The chief executive refers to the one individual or small
group (such as a president, prime minister, or ruling junta)
at the apex of the executive structure of the political
system.
• The executive is much broader term, including all the
people and organizational machinery that are below the
chief executive in the executive structure.
• Thus, broadly the concept executive encompasses upper
and middle-level decision makers in all the departments,
agencies, or other administrative units that are in the chief
executive’s chain of command.
 Executive
POLITICAL EXECUTIVES BUREAUCRATIC EXECUTIVES
• They work for fixed • Refers to all the people and
tenure(temporary) organizational machinery
• Small group(at the apex of that are below chief
executive structure) executives
• Their job is making policy in • Their job is to carryout laws
accordance with ideology and policies without
and priority of the party political consideration
• Experts and professional,
doesn’t owe allegiance to
political party
 Functions of the Executive

I The Political Executive

1) Enforcement functions: The core/the chief function of
executive body is to enforce (implement) all laws,
rules, decisions made by the legislative body and the
judiciary body (court’s decision).
2) Formulation and execution of administrative policy:
The executive body boldly exercise formulation of
regulation (sub-legislative power and issues law of
rules) and allocates funds to various public activities.
3) Control of military forces: The executive branch has
the power to determine how and where troops, the
military, warplanes and ships may be used in period of
conflict and peace.
4) Control of foreign relations: charged with conducting of
foreign relations with other states.
 the chief executive also grants or withholds recognition to the
governments of foreign state.
5) Policy-making leadership: The political executive is looked to,
in particular, to develop coherent economic and social programs
and policies that meet the needs of society.
6) Popular leadership: The popularity of the political executive
more than any other part of political system, is crucial to the
character and stability of the regime (government) as a whole.
 At a policy level, it is the ability of the executive to mobilize
support that ensures the compliance and cooperation of the
general public.
7) Bureaucratic leadership: overseeing the implementation of
policy
8) Crisis leadership: It takes decisive action when crises break out
in either domestic or international politics,
 II) Bureaucratic Executive
 Policy implementation is solely the responsibility of civil servants working
under their political masters.
1) Administration: implement or execute law and policy
• That is why the bureaucracy is sometimes referred to as ‘the
administration’, while the political executive is termed ‘the government’.
• This distinction implies that a clear line can be drawn between the policy-
making role of a politicians and the policy implementing role of bureaucrats.
2) Political Stability: the final function of bureaucrats is to provide a focus of
stability and continuity with in political systems.
 This is sometimes seen as a particular importance in developing states, where
the existence of a body of trained career officials may provide the only
guarantee that the government is conducted in orderly and reliable fashions.
 This stability depends very largely on the status of bureaucrats as permanent
and professional public servants; that is, while ministers and governments
come and go, the bureaucracy is always there.
3) Policy Advice: used as a chief source of the
policy information and advice available to
government.
 Moreover, as the principal source of the advice
available to the politicians, bureaucrats
effectively control the flow of information,
that is, politicians know that civil servants tell
them.
4) Articulating Interests Bureaucrats are
brought into contact with interest groups
through their task of policy implementation
and their involvement in policy formulation
 The Judiciary Organ
The judiciary is the branch of government that
is empowered to decide legal disputes.
Thus, the central function of judges is to
adjudicate on the meaning of law, in the sense
that they interpret or construct laws.
Play role in settling dispute between the major
institutions of government or in one between
the state and the individual.
 Judiciary
1. Adjudication: the first and for most function of the judge is to
administer justice.
• They hear and decide cases, such as civil, criminal and constitutional, in
the light of the argument given by the concerned parties.
2. Formulating case law: Case law is developed where judges must decide
how a law, whether common or statute, should apply in a particular case.
This kind of law is often referred to as judge-made law because the
interpretation is made by the judge in each case and becomes binding on
all other courts.
3. Protection of individual rights: The judiciary body has great role in
protecting the constitutionally guaranteed rights of individuals mainly
through due process of law.
For example the judiciary plays a great role in the protection against
unreasonable or arbitrary laws and procedures by the government and its
institutions at any level.
 The judiciary
4. Guardian of the constitution: in most federal systems, the court acts as the
guardian of the constitution and an umpire between the central and
regional governments.
• All constitutional disputes among the regional states or between the
regional states and central/federal governments are settled by the highest
court of the country.
• However, there are differences among federal states in empowering the
power to interpret the federal constitution.
• For example in Ethiopia it is not the federal Supreme Court, but house of
federation that has the power to interpret the FDRE constitution.
5. Judicial Review: another significant function of the courts, particularly of
the high and supreme courts, is to look in to constitutional validity of the
legislative measure or executive action, and then declare it unsound and
void to the extent of its being against to the fundamental law of the land.
That is, the power of the judiciary to review the laws, decrees, and actions of
other branches of government, and to declare them invalid.
 SYTEMS OF GOVERNMENT
Characteristics of Parliamentary government
• The executive is divided into two parts: Head of the government and
Head of the State.
• The head of the government has real executive power than the head of
the state.
• The head of the government is the prime minister and the prime
minister is the one who is the chairman or chairperson of the party or
parties which won the election
• The head of government appoints the ministers and higher officials-
cabinets.
• The councils of Ministers, including the prime minister is individually
or collectively accountable to the parliament.
• Ministers can be usually members of parliament.
• The party or coalition of parties that won the majority seat in the
parliament forms the councils of ministers and prime minister
• parliament is the focus of power in the political system
• Crucially important here is that the role of
head of the state is separated from that of the
head of government.
• Another key characteristic of parliamentarian
is that the executive is drawn from the
assembly and, crucially its ability to hold on to
power is dependent on legislative confidence.
• The executive has to retain the support of the
legislature in order to be able to pass its
legislative proposals and govern.
 Presidential form of government
Characteristics
• The executive is not divided. The president acts as head of
the state and head of government.
• The president is directly elected by the people
• the president forms the council of ministers.
• President and the head of departments are not accountable
to the congress or the parliament.
• the executive is directly responsible to the electorate than
to the congress
• The president is the focus of power.
• A key feature of the system is that there is clear separation
of power between executive and legislative bodies.
 Semi presidential systems
• Interestingly there a third form, which is best,
conceptualized in the mixture of the two.
• The most accessible examples are France,
India.
• The key characteristics here is that the
existence of both president and a prime
Minster.
• The power relation ship between two offices
will vary-in France for example, the president
enjoys supremacy.
 Difference between state and
government
state Government
• Inclusive which includes • Only small part of total
both government and cognition participate in
governed various organs of
• Permanent government
• Practice impersonal • Temporary
authority • It represent
• abstract sympathetic interest
• concrete
Thank you for
your
patience!!