Structure and Organization of Eukaryotic cell

Plasma membrane
• Eukaryotes resemble Prokaryotes in membrane
structure and functions except for sterols

• Source: http://bioweb.wku.edu.
 Cell wall
• Cell wall is quite simple.
• In algae and plant cells, the cell
wall is usually composed of
cellulose.
• In molds it is composed of chitin
and/or cellulose.
• Animal cells and protozoans lack
cell walls.
 Flagella and Motility in eukaryotes
• Many eukaryotic microorganisms move by flagella
and cilia
• Cilia are shorter than flagella - structurally similar
• Flagella are long, flexible structures move in a
whiplash fashion
• Both consist of 9 fused pairs of protein microtubules
(tubulin) with side arms of the motor molecule dynein
that originate from a centriole. These form a ring around
an inner central pair of microtubules that arise from a
plate near the cell surface. The arrangement of
microtubules is known as a 2X9+2 arrangement. This
complex of microtubules is surrounded by a sheath
continuous with the cytoplasmic membrane.
Source: http://. micro.magnet.fsu.edu
• cilia are more in numbers, beat in a coordinated fashion
called metachronal rhythm
• Amoeba and slime moulds show a movement produced
by their cytoplasm, called cytoplasmic streaming
• produces projections, called pseudopodia
 Mitochondria

• Approximately the same size as bacteria

• Number - varies in cells
• The process of respiration and oxidative
phosphorylation localized in mitochondria
• The mitochondrial membranes lack sterols.
ATP synthesized within the mitochondrion can
move into the cytoplasm
• Cristae - project into the mitochondrial lumen
• enzymes involved in ATP production are located
within the inner membrane
• Enzymes of TCA cycle and β – oxidation are
located in the matrix
• Mitochondria use its DNA, ribosomes to produce
some of its own proteins
• Mitochondria reproduce by binary fission
 Chloroplasts
• All photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms, possess
chloroplasts
• structures of chloroplast reveals thylakoids
• thylakoid membrane is impermeable to ions well
suited for its role in protein translocation
• thylakoids are stacked grana
• stroma of chloroplasts contain enzymes for
reduction of CO2 to organic material
• outer chloroplast membrane is highly permeable
• Although some bacteria are photosynthetic, do not
possess chloroplasts
Structure of a chloroplast
Eukaryotic ribosomes
 Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi bodies
• The endoplasmic reticulum or ER is a maze of parallel
membranous tubules and flattened sacs surrounding the
nucleus that connects with the nuclear membrane and runs
throughout the cytoplasm
• provide a surface area for protein and lipid synthesis;
• form a pathway for transporting molecules within the cell;
and
• provide a storage area for molecules the cell has
synthesized.
• Golgi
• sort proteins and lipids received from the ER;
• modify certain proteins and glycoproteins; and
• sort and package these molecules into vesicles for
transport to other parts of the cell or secretion from the cell.
 Nuclei

• Eukaryotic organisms possess a nuclear envelope contains

the genetic material
• envelope consists of two membranes
• outer membrane carries ribosomes and forms continuous
structure with the endoplasmic reticulum and cytoplasmic
membrane
• nuclear envelope encloses chromosomes in chromosomal
proteins
• called histones
• DNA exists as a single linear molecule to which histones
and other proteins are attached
• number of chromosomes vary from a few to many hundreds
 Structure of a nucleus
•Eukaryotic cells contain much
more DNA than do bacteria,
•DNA is organized as multiple
chromosomes located within a
nucleus.
•The nucleus in eukaryotic cells
is separated from the
cytoplasm by a nuclear
envelope
• The nucleus divides my
mitosis , a process that ensures
each daughter cell receives the
same number of chromosomes
as the original parent cell.
•Haploid sex cells are produced
Source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu. from diploid cells by meiosis
 The cytoskeleton

• cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells contain network of

microfilaments and microtubules
• filaments contain a number of proteins including
actin and myosin
• Cytoskeleton maintenance of cell shape,
positioning cell organelles cell motility
(Spirochactes is an exception among
Prokaryotes in having cytoskeleton)
 Cytoskeleton

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu.
 Fungi

• Fungi are eukaryotic, spore-bearing organisms with

absorptive nutrition.
• unicellular fungus - yeast
• vegetative structure of a fungus is called Thallus
• fungal cell is encased in a cell wall made of chitin
• long, branched filaments called the hyphae, aggregate to
form mycelium
 Nutrition
• Fungi grow best in dark, moist habitats
• classified as parasites and saprophytes
• Obligate saprophytes
• Facultative parasites or saprophytes
• Obligate parasites
• They are chemo-organoheterotrophs
• Fungi are usually aerobic
• Some yeasts facultatively anaerobic
 Reproduction in Fungi
• Fungi reproduce either sexually or asexually
• Asexual reproduction
• A parent cell can divide into two daughter cells
• Somatic vegetative cells may bud to produce
new organisms
• By the production of asexual spores
• Arthrospores
• Chlamydospores
• Sporangiospores

• Conidiospores
• Blastospores

Source: claguilera.blogspot.com
 Sexual Reproduction

• Sexual reproduction involves the union of

compatible nuclei
• sexual fusion may occur between haploid
gametes or haphae
Taxonomic classification of fungi
Division Common Name Approx. No. of
species

Zygomycota Zygomycetes 600

Ascomycota Sac fungi 35,000

Basidiomycota Club fungi 30,000

Deuteromycota Fungi imperfecti 30,000

 Division Zygomycota

• zygomycetes are coenocytic. Most are

saprophytic. A few are parasites
• Eg. Rhizopus stolonifer, the bread mold
• Special hyphae called rhizoids extend into the
substrate and absorb nutrients
• Some hyphae produce asexual sporaniga
• when released can start a new mycelium
• Rhizopus usually reproduces asexually, if food
becomes scarce, begins sexual reproduction
• When two mating strains come close, hyphae
form projections progametangia mature to
gametangia
• Zygote
• Zygospore
• Zygospore asexual sporangium and the cycle
begins
 Division Ascomycota

• Fungi of this division are called ascomycetes or

sac fungi
• Many ascomycetes are parasites of higher
plants. Ergotism, Claviceps purpurea
• Mycelium of ascomycetes is composed of
septate hyphae
• Asexual reproduction is common - conidiospores
• Sexual reproduction involves the formation of an
ascus containing ascospores
• Sexual reproduction special ascogenous hyphae
• Antheridium, ascogonium, migrate to form the
ascogenous hyphae
• The paired nuclei divide that there is one pair of
nuclei in each cell
• nuclear fusion occurs at the hyphal tips in the
ascus mother cells
• diploid zygote nucleus undergoes meiosis,
resulting in four haploid nuclei
• These divide mototically to produce a row of
eight nuclei in each developing ascus
 Ascospores

Source: fungionline.org.uk
 Division: Basidiomycota
• Basidiomycetes are commonly called club fungi, mushrooms
etc,
• the basidium, involved in sexual reproduction
• Most are saprophytic and decompose plant debris,
especially cellulose and lignin
• Many mushrooms specific alkaloids either as poisons or
hallucinogens
• The life cycle of a typical basidiomycete starts with a
basidiospore germinating to produce a monokaryotic
mycelium
• meets another monokaryotic, mycelium of a different making
type, mycelia fuse to dikaryotic secondary mycelium
 • This mycelium is stimulated to produce a solid
mass of hyphae, as a button that pushes
through the soil, elongates and develops a cap
• Basidiocarp
• cap contains plate like gills

Source: fungionline.org.uk
 Division Deuteromycota

• When a fungus lacks the sexual phase, it is

placed in the division Deuteromycota, Fungi
Imperfeci
• few are parasitic on other fungi
• Several human pathogenic forms like athlete’s
foot, ringworm etc., belong to these group
 Slime molds and water molds

• These molds resemble fungi in appearance

• In their cellular organization, they are related
most closely to the protists
 Economic importance of fungi
• Fungi are both useful as well as harmful to
humankind
• Useful activities of fungi
– Food Industry
– Mushrooms are a type of fungi - Edible
• Agaricus bisporous
– Lecanora esculata is a lichen
– Reindeer moss – a lichen in tundra
– Food yeast contains vitamins of the B-group,
E-group and 15% proteins, ( used as SCP)
 Industrial applications
• In breweries :
– Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) of glucose -
yeasts yield ethyl alcohol and CO2
• In bakeries :
– Saccharomyces cervisiae - baker’s yeast.
• Cheese processing :
– Penicillium and Aspergillus
• Chemical industry :
– citric acid, gallic acid, gluconic acid, Aspergillus sp.
• Others :
– perfumes are obtained from lichens
• Role in agriculture:
– Saprophytic fungi help in the decay of dead animals and plants
• Recycling and mineralization of materials
• Medical uses
– Anibiotics
• Patulia
• Fumigati
• Cephalosporin
• Viridin
– Synthesis of vitamins and enzymes
– Synthesis of proteins and fats
 Harmful activities of fungi

• Human diseases
• Plant diseases
• Food spoilage
• Tropical deterioration
 Algae

• Algae are classified under the group thallophyta in

the division cryptogams
• they lack tissues
• Algae are autotrophic oxygenic photosynthesis,
freshwater seawater, moist soil
• single celled, colonial or filamentous
• Algae are usually green
• may be blue – green or red or brown
• cell wall is made up of cellulose reserve food as
starch
 Properties of major groups of algae

Groups Morphology Pigments / carbon Habitats Examples

reserve / cell wall
features
Chlorophyta Unicellular to Chlorophylls a&b; starch; Freshwater, Chlamydomonas
(Green algae) leafy cell walls of cellulose soil and
marine

Chrysophyta Unicellular Chlorophylls a, c Freshwater, Navicula

Golden-brown soil and
algae, diatoms and e; Lipids; silica marine

Phaeophyta Filamentous to Chlorophylls a & c Marine Laminaria

(Brown algae) leafy Xanthophylls; Laminarin,
mannitol; cellulose

Pyrrophyta Unicellular Chlorophylls a&c; starch; Freshwater, Gonyaulux

(Dinoflagellates) flagellated cellulose marine

Rhodophyta Unicellular, Chlorophylls a&d, Marine Polysiphonia

(Red algae) filamentous to phycocyanin,
leafy phycoerythrin; starch;
fluoridoside, cellulose
Different groups of algae
 Protozoa

• Protozoa are unicellular or colonial eurkaryotes

• cell wall is absent
• various membrane bound cell organelles
• may be pseudopodia (as in Amoeba) cilia
(Paramecium) or flagella (Euglena)
• Parasitic forms do not possess any of these
locomotory structures
• Nutrition may be holophytic or holozoic
• autotrophic, heterotrophic or myxotrophic
• Cyst formation is common
 Major groups of protozoa

Group Habitats Common diseases Examples

Mastigophora Freshwater; parasites of Sleeping sickness Trypanosoma

(Flagellates) animals Leishmania

Leishmaniasis
Sarcodina Freshwater and marine; Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba

(Amoebas) animal parasites

Ciliophora Freshwater and marine; Dysentery Paramecium

(Ciliates) animal parasites

Sporozoa Primarily animal parasites Malaria Plasmodium

(Sporozoans)
Euglenoids Freshwater, some marine --- Euglena

(Phototrophic (Also considered with

flagellates) algae)
Protozoa