21MAB101T

Calculus and Linear Algebra

Department of Mathematics
College of Engineering and Technology
SRM Institute of Science and Technology Kattankulathur-603203

UNIT-I : MATRICES
The following topics are:

• Characteristic equations
• Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
• Properties of Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
• Cayley-Hamilton theorem
• Orthogonal Matrix
• Properties Orthogonal Matrix
• Orthogonal reduction of a symmetric matrix to a diagonal form
• Reduction of Quadratic form to a Canonical form by orthogonal
transformation
• Nature of Quadratic form to a Canonical form
• Application of Matrices
 Definition
• Matrix
•A rectangular array of numbers that represents a
multidimensional object. Matrix are used to solve linear
systems, as well as in vector operations.

• 4 X 3 Matrix

•
CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION:
Consider the linear transformation Y = A X
In general, this transformation transforms a column
𝑥1 𝑦1
𝑥2 𝑦2
vector𝑋 = ⋮ into another column vector 𝑌 = ⋮
𝑥𝑛 𝑦𝑛
𝑎11 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
By means of the square matrix A where A = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎 𝑛1 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑛𝑛
If a vector X is transformed into a scalar multiple of the same vector.
i.e., X is transformed into 𝜆𝑋, then Y = 𝜆𝑋 = A X
i.e., A X = 𝜆𝑋 = 𝜆𝐼𝑋, where I is the unit matrix of order n. Now
(A - 𝜆I)X =0 implies
𝑎11 − 𝜆)𝑥1 + 𝑎12𝑥2 + … + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 =
0
𝑎21⋯𝑥1 +⋯(𝑎22⋯ − 𝜆)𝑥⋯2 + ⋯… +⋯𝑎 2𝑛⋯
𝑥𝑛 =
𝑎0𝑛 1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥2 + …+
((𝑎𝑛 𝑛 − 𝜆)𝑥𝑛 = 0 ⋯
This system of equations will have a n solution if
│(A - 𝜆I)│= 0
│(A - 𝜆I)│= 0 implies

a11   
a 12 a 1n
 
a 21
. .
a 2n
a 22 . .
.
.  
an2 a nn
. 
The equationa n1
│(A - 𝜆I)│= 0 is
said
0 to be the characteristic
equation of the transformation or. the characteristic equation
of the matrix A .
 Characteristic roots or Eigenvalues or
Latent values of the Matrix A
Solving │(A - 𝜆I)│= 0 , we get n roots for λ, these
roots a re called Eigenvalues of A
Characteristic Vectors or Eigenvectors or
Latent vectorsof the Matrix A
Solving │(A - 𝜆I)│= 0 , we get n roots for λ,
corresponding to each value of λ, the equation A X= λX has a non-
zero solution vector. If X r be the non-zero vector satisfying
A X = λX for each λr , then X r is said to be the Eigenvectors.
characteristic polynomial
Expand │(A - 𝜆I)│
Working Rule to find Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Step-1. Find the Characteristic equation │(A - 𝜆I)│= 0
Step-2. Solve characteristic equation and find eigenvalues
Step-3. Find n distinct eigenvectors corresponding to n distinct
eigen values
Note:
1. If two or more eigenvalues are equal, it may or may not be possible to
get linearly independent Eigenvectors corresponding to the repeated
Eigenvalues.
2. If Xi is a solution of for a Eigenvalue λi then it follows that C Xi is also
solution, where C is an arbitrary constant. Thus Eigenvector
corresponding to a Eigenvalue is not unique but may be any one of the
vectors C Xi
3.Non-repeated eigenvalues of a non-symmetric matrix implies linearly
independent sets of Eigen vectors
4.Repeated eigenvalues of a non-symmetric matrix implies linearly
independent sets of Eigen vectors may or may not be possible
5.Diagonalisation through similarity transformation is possible for linearly
independent sets of eigenvectors
6. In a symmetric matrix the eigenvalues are non-repeated then we get
a
linearly independent and pairwise orthogonal set of eigenvectors
7. In a symmetric matrix the Eigen values are repeated then we may or
may not be possible to get linearly independent and pairwise orthogonal
sets of eigenvectors. If we form a linearly independent and pairwise
orthogonal sets of eigenvectors then diagonalisation is possible
through orthogonal transformation.
 Properties of Eigen values
Property 1
Every square matrix and its transpose have the same Eigen values.
Property 2
If λ1, λ2, … λn are the Eigen values of matrix A, then 1/λ1, 1/λ2, …
1/λn are the Eigen values of A-1.
Property 3
If λ1, λ2, …λn are Eigen values of the matrix A, then λ 12, λ 22,…λn2 are
the Eigen values of A2.
Property 4
If λ1, λ2, …λn are the Eigen values of the matrix A, then kλ1, kλ2,
…kλn are the Eigen values of kA.

Property 5
The Eigen value of a real symmetric matrix are all real.

Property 6
The Eigen values of a triangular matrix are the diagonal elements of
the matrix.

Property 7
Zero is an Eigen value of a matrix A if and only if A is singular.
Property 8
The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix A is equal to the sum of
the principal diagonal elements of A.(The sum of the principal
diagonal elements is called the Trace of the matrix)
Property 9
The product of the Eigen values of a matrix A is equal to
the determinant of A.
Property 10
The Eigen vectors corresponding to distinct Eigen values of a
real symmetric matrix are orthogonal.
 Problems Using Properties
1. Find the sum and product of the Eigen values of the matrix

−2 2 −3
A= 2 1
−6
Solution−1 −2 0

Sum of the Eigen values of the matrix = Sum of the leading diagonal elements of
the matrix = -1

−2 2 −3
Product of Eigen values of the matrix = 𝐴 = 2 1
−6
= -2 ( 0 – 12 ) -2 ( 0 – 6 ) -3 ( -4−1
+ 1 )−2 0

= 45
 2. If two of the Eigen values of A are 3 and 15. Find the Eigen
third 8 −6 2
value of A = 6 7 −4
.

Solution −2 −4 3

Let λ1, λ2, λ3 are the Eigen values of A. Sum of all the Eigen value is
λ1+ λ2+ λ3 = 8 + 7 + 3 = 18
λ3 + 3 + 15 = 18

λ3 = 0
3. If two of the Eigen values of the
matrix
3 −1
A= 1 are 3 and 6. Find the Eigen values of A-1.
−1 5 1
Solution1 −1
3
Let λ1, λ2, λ3 are the Eigen values of A. Sum of all the Eigen value is
λ1+ λ2+ λ3 = 3 + 5 + 3 = 11
λ3 + 3 + 6 = 11
λ3 = 2.
By Property 2, the Eigen
values of A-1 are
 1 2 3
4. Find the Eigen values of A3 if A= 0 2 −7
0 0 3

Solution

By property 6, the Eigen values of A = 1, 2, 3.

By property 3, the Eigen values of A3 = 13, 23, 33 .

 𝑎 4
5. Find the constants a and b such that matrix has 3 and -2 as its
1 𝑏
Eigen values.

Solution
Given λ1= 3 and λ2= -2
Sum of the Eigen values of A = Trace of A
3+(-2) = a+b
a+b = 1 implies b=1-a (1)
Product of the Eigen values =
𝐴
-6 =ab-4

implies ab=-2
 1 −2
6. Find the Eigen values of the inverse of the matrix
.
Solution −5 4
Characteristic equation is 𝐴 − λ𝐼 = 0.

1−λ −2
=0
−5 4−
λ
λ2-5λ-6=0

λ= −1, 6

By Property 2, the Eigen values are -1,1/6.

 2 −2 2
7. If 2 is an Eigen value of A= 1 1 1 , find the other two
1 3 −1
Eigen values.
Solution
Let λ1, λ2, λ3 are the Eigen values of A.
Sum of all the Eigen value is 2,λ1+ λ2+ λ3 = 2
Product of the Eigen values = 𝐴 = −8 , λ1 λ2λ3 = -
8. Given λ1= 2,
λ 2 + λ3 = 0 and λ2 λ3 = -4
Solving , λ2 = 2 , λ3 = -2 or λ2 = -2 , λ3 =
2 . Therefore, 2 and -2 are the two Eigen
values.
P ro b l e m :
F i n d eig en Va l u e s a n d the c o r r e s p o n d i n g eig en vectors
 2  2 3 
o f t h e m a t r ix  1 1  .
1
 1
Solution:
E i g e n V a l u e s a r e g i v e n b y A  I  0
3
2    2 3
1 1 1  1= 
  0
1  s u m o 3f d i1a g on a l e l e m e n t s   2
 3

 s u m o f c o f a c t o r o f d i a g o n a l e l e m e n t s   A  0

 3 2  2
 5  6  0
  1, - 2 , 3 a r e r e q u i r e d e i g e n

v a l u e s
Eigen vectors are given by A  I X  0
 2    2 3
  x   0 
 1 1   1  y  
   0
 1 3 1     z   0 
2   x  2 y  3 z  0 
x  1    y  z  0 
1
x  3 y  1    z  

0
Case: 1
L e t   1 in (1), w e get
x  2 y  3z 
0 x  0 y  z 
0 x  3 y  2z
 0
Consider first two equations

x y z
1 2 3
1 0 1
x z
y

 20 1 3 02
x y z
 
1 1 1
 1 
E ig en V ecto r is X 1  1
  1 

C a s e : 2
4 x  2 y  3 z  0
L e t   -2 in ( 1 ) , w e g et, 1 x  3 y  z  0
x  3 y  z  0

x y z
C o n s id e r f ir s t t w o e q u a t io n s , 4  2 3
1 3 1
x  y z
 
 2  9 4  3 1 2  2
x y z
 
1 1 1  1 4
 11 
 
E i g e n Ve c t o r is 
X 2   1
  1 4 
Case: 3
 x  2 y  3 z  0
L e t   - 2 in ( 1 ) , w e g e t , x  2 y  z  0
x  3 y  4 z  0

x y z
C o n s i d e r last t w o equations, 1  2 1
1 3  4
x  y z
 
8  3  4  1 3  2
x y z
1  1  1
 1 
E i g e n Ve c t o r is X 3   1
1 
 
Problem:
Find eigen Values and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix
 8 6 2
 6 7  4
 
 2  4 3 
Solution:

Eigen Values are given by

A  I  0

8 6 2
6 7 4 =0
2 4 3
 sum of diagonal elements 2
3

sumof cofactor of diagonal elements   A 

0 3 182  45  0 

 0 0 , 3, 15 are required eigen
values.
E i g e n vectors are given b y A  I X  0
 8    6 2
 x  
  6     
7   4
0  y 
 2
  4 3     z   0 
8   x  6 y  20z  
0 6 x  7   y  4 z  
 41 y  3   z 
20 x  

0
Case: 1
L e t   0 in (1), w e get
8x  6 y  2z  0
 6x  7 y  4z  0
2x  4 y  3z  0
C o n s i d e r last t w o e q u a t i o n s

x y z
 6 7  4
2  4 3
x  y z
 
21  16  18  8 24  14
x y z
1  2  2
 1 
E i g e n Ve c t o r is X   2 
1
 
 2  .
Case: 2

L e t   3 in ( 1 ) , w e
g e t
5 x  6 y  2 z  0
 6 x  4 y  4 z  0
2 x  4 y  0 z  0
C o n s i d e r last t w o e q u a t i o n s
x y z
 6 4  4
2  4 0
x  y z
 
0 16 0  8 24  8
x y z
 
2 1  2  2 
 
E i g e n Ve c t o r is X 2   1 
  2 
Case: 3
L e t   1 5 in ( 1 ) , w e
g et
7 x  6 y  2z  0
 6x  8 y  4z  0
2 x  4 y  12 z  0
 Consider last two
equations
x y z
6 8 4
2 4
 12
x z
 
96  16 72 y 24  16
x y 8z
 
2 2 1
 2 
Eigen Vector is X 3    2 
 1 
Problem:
2
2
1
Solution:
Eigen Values are given 1
Find eigen Values and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix 2 3
by
A  I  0 

2 1 1 3
2 3 2 
0 3
4   elements
3 sum of3 diagonal
3 4
sumof2 cofactor of diagonal elements   A
0
3  92 15  7  0
  1, 1, 7roots
(Repeated are required
with noneigen values
– symmetric
matrix)
Eigen vectors are given by A  I X 0
 2   1 1
  x   
 2 3   2
 3 0  y    0 
 3 4     z   0 
2   x  y  z  
02 x  3    y  2 z  
 31y  4   z  
30 x 
C0 as e : 1
L e t   1 in ( 1) , w e ge t
x y z  0
2x  2 y  2z 
0 3x  3y  3z
 0
 But all the above three equations are
same i.e., x  y  z  0
let x = 0 and y =1 we get z = -1
 0 
Eigen Vector is X 1   1 
  1 
Case: 2
let x = 1 and y =0 we get z = -1
 1 
Eigen Vector is X 2   0 
  1 
C La se et : 3  7 i n ( 1 ) , w e

 5 x  y  gz e t 0
2x  4 y  2z 
0 3x  3 y  3z
 0
C o n s i d e r last
t xw o e q u a t i zo n s
y
2 2
 3
 4
3

3 

x z 

6  12 


Problem:
Find eigen Values and the corresponding eigen vectors
6 6 5
13 10
of the matrix 14 
 7 6 4
Solution: 
Eigen Values are given by
A 0
I
6 6 5
14 13   10
0
3 7 sum of diagonal elements 
 2
 6 4

sum of cofactor of diagonal elements   A 
0
3  32  3 1  0
(Repeated
-1, -1, -1 roots with non
are required eigen–values
symmetric
matrix)
E i g e n vectors are g i v e n b y A  I X  0
 6 
 6 5
  x   
 1 4  13   10
 7 0  y    0 
  6 4     z   0 
6   x  6 y  5 z  
104 x   1 3    y  1 0 z  

07 x 61 y  4   z  
0
Case: 1
L e t   - 1 in ( 1) , w e g et
7x  6 y  5z  0
14 x  12 y  10 z  0
7x  6 y  5z  0
B u t all t h e a b o v e t h r e e e q u a t i o n s a r e s a m e
i.e., 7 x  6 y  5 z  0
6
let x = 0 a n d y = 1 w e g e t z =
5
 0 
 
1 
E i g e n V e c t o r is X 1  
 6 5 
C a s e : 2
7
let x = 1 a n d y = 0 w e g e t z =
5
  0
 
E i g e n V e c t o r is X   1 
2

  7 5 
C a s e : 3
7
let x = 1 a n d z = 0 w e g e t y =
6
 0 
 
E i g e n V e c t o r is
X  7 6 
3
 0 
 
Note:
If X 1 , X 2 and X 3 are eigen vectors of
a symmetric matrix X 1 , X 2 and X 3 are
orthogonal

X 1 X 2 = 0,
Then, T

X2 X3 T = 0
and X 1 X 3 T
=
0
Problem:
F i n d e i g e n Va l u e s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e i g e n v e c t o r s
 6  2 2 
3  1
o f t h e m a t r i x   2

 2  1 3
Solution: 
E i g e n Va l u e s a r e g i v e n b y
A  I  0
6    2 2
 2 3    1
 0
s u m 1o f d i 3a go n a l e l e m e n t s 
2
 3
2

sum of cofactor of diagonal elements  A  0

 31 2  2
 36  32  0
  8 , 2 , 2 a r e r e q u ir e d e ig e n (Repeated roots
with symmetric matrix
v a lu e s
E i g e n vectors are given b y A  I X  0
 6    2 2
 x  
  2     
3   1
0 
y 
 2
  3     z   0 
6   x 21 y  2 0z  0
 2 x  3    y  z  
 y1  3   z 
20 x  

0
Case: 1
L e t   8 in ( 1) , w e ge t
 2x  2 y  2z  0
 2x  5 y  z 
0 2x  y  5z 
C o n s i d e r first t w o e q u a t i o n s

x y z
 2  2 2
 2  5 1
x 
 y z
2  10 2  4  10
x  4
 y z
12  6  6
 2 
E i g e n Ve c t o r is X    1
1

 1 
Case: 2
L et   2 in (1), w e get
4x  2 y  2z  0
 2x  y  z  0
2x  y  z  0
B u t all t h e a b o v e t h r e e e q u a t i o n s a r e s a m e
i.e., 2 x  y  z  0
let x = 0 a n d y = 1 w e g e t z = 1
 0 
E i g e n Ve c t o r is X 2   1 
 1 
 
C a s e : 3
S i n c e t h e g i v e n m a t r i x A is s y m m e t r i c
( X 1 X 2T = 0 , X2 X 3 T = 0 a n d X 1 X 3 T = 0 )

X 2 X 3T = 0 a n d X1 X 3
T
= 0, w e g e t
2 x  y  z 
0 0 x  y  z
x 0 y z
2 1 1
0 1 1
x  y z
 1  1  2  0 
2  0
x y z
 
 2  2 2
 2 
E i g e n Ve c t o r is X 3   2 
 1 
 
P r o b l e m :
F i n d E i g e n Va l u e s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e i g e n
2  1 1 

v e c to rs o f th e m a t r ix   1 2  1 
 1 2 
 1
S o l u t i o n :
E i g e n Va l u e s a r e g i v e n b y
A   I  0
2    1 1
 1 2   1 
 0
1   s u m of d i a2 g o 
n a l e l e m e n t s  2 
 13

su m of cofactor of diagonal elements   A  0

 6  2  9   4  0
 3
  4, 1, 1 are required eigen values ( R e p e a t e d r o o t s
w i t h s y m m e t r i c m a t r i x )

E i g e n v e c t o r s a r e g i v e n
b y  A  I  X

 2    1 1
  x 
  0
 0 
  1 2    1   y   
 0
 1  1 2     z   0 
 2    1 1
  x   0 
  1 2    1   y   
 0
 1  1 2     z   0 
2   x  y  z  0 
 x  2    y  z  
 y 1  2    z  
0x  
0
C a s e : 1
L e t   4 in (1), w e g e t
 2 x  y  z  0
 x  2 y  z  0
x  y  2 z  0
C o n s i d e r first t w o e q u a t i o n s
x y z
 2  1 1
 1  2 
1 ,  y z x y z
   
1 x 2 2  1 4  1 , 1  1 1
  1
 
E ig e n V e c t o r is X    1 
1
 1 
 
 Case: 2
in (1), w e get
L e t   1

•x  y  z  0
• x  y  z  0  0 
E i g e n Ve c t o r is X 2   1 
 1 
 
•x C ays e: z3  0
•B u( Xt a lXl t h=e
T a0 b, oX2vXe 3 tT h=r e0 e a en qd uXa1 t Xi o3 nT s= a0 r) e s a m e i . e . , x 
y  z  0 2
1

• X 2 X 3 T = 0 a n d X1 X 3 T = 0 , w e g e t
l e t x x =y 0 z an d0 y = 1 w e g e t z = 1
0x  y  z  0

S i n c e t he g i v e n m a t r i x A is s y m m e t r i c
x y z
1 1 1
0 1 1
x y
 
z
11 1 0 1
0
x y z
 2 
 
1 1 is X 3   1
 2 Vector
Eigen
 1 

Cayley Hamilton theorem :

Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.

Examples :
3 1 2
1.Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix A = 4 3 1
2 5 4

Solution :
We have to find the characteristic equation | A – λI | = 0

3-λ 1 2
| A – λI | = 4 3-λ 1
2 5 4-λ

= (3-λ) [(3-λ)(4-λ)-5] -1 [4(4-λ)-2] + 2[20-2(3-λ)]

= (3-λ) (λ2-7λ+7) – (14-4λ) + 2(14+2λ)
=-λ3+10λ2-20λ+35

Therefore the characteristic equation is,

-λ3+10λ2-20λ+35 = 0
Therefore, we have to prove that
A3-10A2+20A-35 = 0

Now to find A2 and A3

A2=A*A

3 1 2 3 1 2
A2 = 4 3 1 4 3 1
2 5 4 2 5 4
 =

*A

Substitute A, , and I in the characteristic equation.

 Hence Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.

2. Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem and hence find the matrix

 1 2 -1
3 -3 1
2 1 -2

Solution :
1 2 -1
Let A = 3 -3 1
2 1 -2

1-λ 2 -1
| A – λI | = 3 -3-λ 1
2 1 -2-λ

= (1-λ) [(-3-λ)(-2-λ)-1] -2 [3(-2-λ)-2] -1 [3-2(-3-λ)]

= (1-λ) (λ2+5λ+5) –2 (-8-3λ) -1 2(9+2λ)
= -λ3-4λ2+4λ+12
Therefore the characteristic equation is,
-λ3 -4λ2 +4λ +12 = 0
we have to prove that A3 +4A2 -4A -12I = 0

To find A2 and A3,

A2=A*A

1 2 -1 1 2 -1
A2 = 3 -3 1 3 -3 1
2 1 -2 2 1 -1

5 -5 3
= -4 16 -8
1 -1 3
 5 -5 3 1 2 -1
= -4 16 -8 3 -3 1
1 -1 3 2 1 -2

-4 28 -16
= 28 -64 36
4 8 -8

Substitute and I in the characteristic equation

-4 28 -16 5 -5 3 1 2 -1 1 0 0
= 28 -64 36 -4-4 16 -8 -4 3 -3 1 -12 0 1 0
4 8 -8 1 -1 3 2 1 -2 0 0 1
 0 0 0
= 0 0 0 =0
0 0 0

Hence Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified

To find Inverse :

We have A3 +4A2 -4A -12I = 0

Multiply by A-1 we get,

A-1A3 + A-1A2 – 4A-1A – 12A-1I = 0

A2 +4A -4I – 12A-1 = 0
12A-1 = A2 +4A -4I

A-1 = 1/12 [ A2 +4A -4I]

 5 -5 3 1 2 -1 1 0 0
= 1/12 -4 16 -8 +4 3 -3 1 -4 0 1 0
1 -1 3 2 1 -2 0 0 1

5 3 -1
= 1/12 8 0 -1
9 3 -9
 1 4
3. Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix A    and find its inverse.
 2 3
Also express A5  4 A4  7 A3  11A2  A  10 I as a linear polynomial in A.
Solution:
1 4
Given A    .
 2 3
Characteristic equation of A is |A  I | 0.
 2  4  5  0 (1)
By Cayley Hamilton theorem A, satisfies
A2  4 A  5 I  0 (2)
  1 4  1 4   9 16 
A2  AA      
 2 3  2 3   8 17 
 9 16  1 4 1 0
A  4 A  5I  
2
  4 2 3   5 0 1 
 8 17     
0 0
 
0 0
Hence the Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.
To find A1.
Multiply by A1 in (2).
1 1  3 4 
A1  [ A  4 I ]  
5 5  2 1
Finally to find A5  4 A4  7 A3  11A2  A  10 I .
Consider the polynomial  5  4 4  7 3  11 2    10.
Divided it by A2  4 A  5, we get the quotient  2  2  3 and remainder   5.
  5  4 4  7 3  11 2    10  ( 2  4  5)( 2  2  3)    5
Replace  by A.
A5  4 A4  7 A3  11A2  A  10  ( A2  4 A  5)( A2  2 A  3)  A  5
 0  A  5 I (by (2))
=A  5 I which is linear polynomial in A.
1 2
4. If A    , find An interms of A and I.
2 1
Solution:
1 2 
Given A   .
 2 1 
Characteristic equation is  2  5  0.
By Cayley Hamilton theorem,
A2  5 I  0 (1)
To find An , consider the polynomial  n .
Dividing  n by  2  5, we get
 n  ( 2  5)( )  a  b (2)
where ( ) is the quotient and a  b is the remainder.
We shall now find the values of a and b.
The eigen values of A are    5.
Substitute   5 in (2),
( 5) n  a 5  b (3)
Substitute    5 in (2),
(  5) n  a (  5)  b (4)
( 5) n (1  ( 1) n )
(3)  (4)  b 
2
( 5) n 1 (1  ( 1) n )
(3)  (4)  a 
2
Replacing  by A in (2)
An  ( A2  5 I )( A)  aA  bI  aA  bI
n 1  1  ( 1) n  ( 5) n (1  ( 1)n )
 ( 5)   A I
 2  2
 .

• Diagonalization of a matrix by Orthogonal Transformation

Let A be a symmetric matrix. Form a matrix N whose columns

are normalized eigen vectors of A. Since N is orthogonal we
use N 1  N T

• Again which is
D called
N T AN orthogonal reduction or
transformation.
 3 1 1 
1.Diagonalise the matrix A  1 3 1
1 1 3 

by means of orthogonal transformation.

Solution: Characteristic equation of A is
A  I  0
3 1 1
1 3   1  0
1 1 3  
  3  9 2  24  16  0
   1, 4, 4 are the eigen values.

To find eigen vectors:

Let
[ A   I ]X  0
3   1 1   x1  0
 1 3   1   x   0 (1)

  2  
 1 1 3     x3  0

When  1
Equation (1) becomes
  2 1 1   x1  0 
1 2 1  x   0 
  2  
1 1 2   x3  0 

x1 x2 x3
 
3 3 3
Solve by using cross multiplication method,
we have

 1
 for
Eigen vector is  1 X1  
 1 


 1 

 4
When , equation (1) becomes
 1 1 1   x1  0
 1 1 1  x   0
  2  
 1 1 1  x3  0

 x1  x2  x3  0
x2  1, x3  0 x1  1
Let we get
1 
4
Eigen vector for is X 2  1 
 0 
 To find the third eigen vector since the
matrix is symmetric.
a 
b 
X
Let us choose  such 3 0
X 1T Xthat 3 0
X 2T Xand
3  
 c 

a 
a 
1 1 1 b   0 1 1 0 b   0
 c  and  c 

 a  b  c  0 a  b  0c  0
a and
b c
  
1 1 2
  1
X 3   1 
 2 
Normalized modal matrix
 1/ 3 1/ 2 1/ 6 
 
N   1/ 3 1/ 2 1/ 6 
 
 1/ 3 0 2 / 6 
Now D  N T AN
 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3  3 1 1   1/ 3 1/ 2 1/ 6 
   
  1/ 2 1/ 2 0  1 3 1  1/ 3 1/ 2 1/ 6 
  1 1 3   
 1/ 6 1/ 6 2 / 6     1/ 3 0 2 / 6 
 1 0 0
.
D
0 4 0


0 0 4

 2 1 1
2. Diagonalize by means
 1 1 of2 
 
 1 2 1 

orthogonal transformation.

 2 1 1
Solution:
A   1 1 2 
Let  1 2 1 

A  I  0
Characteristic equation of A is
 2 1 1
1 1  2  0
1 2 1 
  3  4 2    4  0
  1,1, 4
To find the eigen vectors:

[ A   I ]X  0

2   1 1   x1  0 
 1 1   2   x   0
Let   2  
 1 2 1     x3  0 
 ,

0
X 1  1 
1 
When   1
, eigen vector
2
X 2   1
When  1
,eigen vector  1 
1
X 3   1 
When 4
, eigen vector  1

Normalized modal matrix  0 2/ 6 1/ 3 

 
N  1/ 2 1/ 6 1/ 3 
 
1/ 2 1/ 6 1/ 3 
 Diagonal form of the matrix,
D = NT A N

-2 /√5 1/√5 0 2 1 2 -2 /√5 1/√2 1/√3

= 1/√2 0 -1 /√2 1 3 1 1/√5 0 1 /√3
1/√3 1/√3 1/√3 1 2 2 0 -1/√2 1/√3

=
5 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Problem for practices
2 -1 1 3 -1 0
1) -1 2 -1 2) -1 2 -1
1 -1 2 0 -1 3
 Quadratic Forms
• Definition:
• A homogeneous polynomial of the second degree in any number of variables
is called a quadratic form.
• Example:
1. 12 x 2  5 xy  13 y 2
2. 10 x12  2 x22  6 x2 x3
1. Write the matrix of the quadratic form 10 x12  2 x22  62 x32  6 x2 x3  10 x3 x1  4 x1 x2
 10 2 5 
Matrix of the quadratic form A   2 2 3 
 
 5 3 6 
 
  0 1/ 2 1/ 2
2. Write the quadratic form for the given matrix A  1 / 2 0 0 .
 
1 / 2 0 8 
 
Quadratic form is 8 x32  x1 x2  x1 x3.

Nature of Quadratic Form

Let X ' AX be a quadratic form in n variables x1 , x2 ,..., xn . Let rank of A be r.

By reducing to a canonical form of X ' AX the resulting canonical form will
contain only r terms (each is a square term).
* The number of positive square terms is index = S
* The difference of number of positive and negative square terms  s  (r  s )  2s  r
is called the signature of the quadratic form.
Real quadratic form, Reduction to Canonical form

• The quadratic form is said to be

1. Positive definite if r = n, s = n.
2. Negative definite if r = n, s = 0.
3. Positive semi-definite if r < n, s = r.
4. Negative semi-definite if r < n, s = 0.
5. Indefinite in every other case.
Finding the nature of a quadratic form using principal minors
 (i ) If some of the det rmina ts in case (i) vanish while the others are positve, the
Examples

2 2 2
1. Find the nature of the quadratic form 2𝑥 +3𝑦 +2𝑧 +2𝑥𝑦.
Nature of quadratic form:
1. If all the Eigen values of the matrix are positive, then the
given quadratic form is positive definite.

2.If all the Eigen values of the matrix are negative then it is
negative definite.

3. If at least one Eigen values of the matrix is zero and others

are positive then it is positive semi definite.
4.If at least one Eigen value of the matrix is zero and
others are negative then it is negative semi definite.

5.In all the other cases, the quadratic form is indefinite.

6. Number of positive square terms is called as index.

Examples
1) Reduce the quadratic form
8X12 + 7X22 + 3X32 – 12X1X2 + 4X1X3 – X2X3
to a canonical form by an orthogonal transformation.
Solution
The matrix of given quadratic form is

8 -6 2
A= -6 7 -4
2 -4 3
 8-λ -6 2
-6 7-λ -4 =0
2 -4 3-λ

(8-λ)[(7-λ)(3-λ) – 16] + 6 [-6(3-λ) + 8] + 2[24-2(7-λ) = 0

λ3 - 18λ2 + 45λ = 0
λ(λ2 - 18λ + 45) = 0
λ =0, 3, 15
Therefore 0, 3, 15 are the eigen values.
To find the Eigen vectors :(A - λI)X = 0

8- λ -6 2 X1
-6 7- λ -4 X2 =0 … (1)
2 -4 3- λ X3

when λ = 0 in … (1)
 8 -6 2 X1 0
-6 7 -4 X2 = 0
2 -4 3 X3 0
8X1 -6X2 + 2X3 = 0
-6X1 + 7X2 -4X3= 0
2X1 – 4X2 + 3X3 = 0
By cross multiplication rule, Taking any two equations

The eigen vector corresponding to λ = 0 is

1
= 2
 when λ = 3 in … (1)

5 -6 2 x1 0
-6 4 -4 x2 = 0
2 -4 0 x3 0

5x1 -6x2 + 2x3 = 0

-6x1 + 4x2 -4x3 = 0
2x1 – 4x2 + 0x3 = 0
By cross multiplication rule,
= =
The eigen vector corresponding to λ = 3 is
2
= 1
-2
 When λ = 15 in … (1)

-7 -6 2 x1 0
-6 -8 -4 x2 = 0
2 -4 -12 x3 0

-7x1 -6x2 + 2x3 = 0

-6x1 - 8x2 – 4x3 = 0
2x1 – 4x2 -12x3 = 0
By cross multiplication rule, taking first two equations,

2
The eigen vector corresponding to λ = 15 is -2
1
The normalized modal matrix is

1/√12+22+22 2/ √ 22+12+(-2)2 2/ √22+(-2)2+12

N= 2/ √12+22+22 1/ √12+22+(-2)2 -2/ √12+(-2)2+22
2/ √12+22+22 -2/ √12+22+(-2)2 1/ √12+22+(-2)2

1/3 2/3 2/3

= 2/3 1/3 -2/3
2/3 -2/3 1/3

1/3 2/3 2/3

NT = 2/3 1/3 -2/3
2/3 -2/3 1/3
Let X = NY be the orthogonal transformation then

𝑸= 𝑿 𝑻 𝑨𝑿 =𝒀 𝑻 𝑵 𝑻 𝑨 N 𝒀

2/3 1/3 -2/3

N
= 2/3 1/3 -2/3
2/3 -2/3 1/3

Canonical form of the matrix =

Canonical form of the matrix, =

1/3 2/3 2/3 8 -6 2 1/3 2/3 2/3

= 2/3 1/3 -2/3 -6 7 -4 2/3 1/3 -2/3
2/3 -2/3 1/3 2 -4 3 2/3 -2/3 1/3

0 0 0
= 0 3 0
0 0 15

The corresponding canonical form is 0y12 + 3y22 + 15y32 .

2) Reduce the quadratic form
6X12 + 3X22 + 3X32 – 4X1X2 + 4X1X3 – 2X2X3
to a canonical form by an orthogonal transformation. Also find the
rank, index ,signature and nature of the quadratic form.
Solution
The matrix of given quadratic form is
6 -2 2
A= -2 3 -1
2 -1 3
Characteristic equation is |A-λI| = 0
6-λ -2 2
-2 3-λ -1 =0
2 -1 3-λ

λ3 - 12λ2 + 36λ – 36 = 0
Solving this, we get
λ =2, 2, 8

Therefore 2, 2, 8 are the eigen values.

To find the eigen vectors
(A - λI)X = 0

6- λ -2 2 X1
-2 3- λ -1 X2 =0 … (1)
2 -1 3- λ X3

when λ = 8 ,

Equation (1) becomes,

 -2 -2 2 x1 0
-2 -5 -1 x2 = 0
2 -1 -5 x3 0

-2x1 -2x2 + 2x3 = 0

-2x1 -5x2 -1x3 = 0
By cross multiplication rule,
= =

The eigen vector corresponding to λ = 8 is

2
= -1
1
Put λ = 2 in … (1)

4 -2 2 x1 0
-2 1 -1 x2 = 0
2 -1 1 x3 0

4x1 -2x2 -2x3 = 0

-2x1 + x2 -1x3 = 0
2x1 – 1x2 + x3 = 0
Let x1 = 0
x2 =1 , x3 =1
The eigen vector corresponding to λ = 2 is
0
= 1
1
To find the third eigen vector for λ = 2

since the matrix is symmetric eigen vectors are orthogonal.

Choose such that and 0

There fore --------------

------------- ( 2 )
Solving (1) and (2) we get
The normalised modal matrix is

2/√6 0 1/ √3
N= -1/ √6 1/ √2 1/ √3
1/√6 1/ √2 -1/ √3

• Canonical form of the matrix =

•
2/√6 -1/√6 1/√6 6 -2 2 2/√6 0 1/√3
= 0 1/√2 1/ √2 -2 3 -1 1/√6 1/√2 1/√3
1/√3 1/√3 -1/√3 2 -1 3 1/√6 1/√2 -1/√3
 8 0 0
= 0 2 0
0 0 2

The canonical form is 8y12 + 2y22 + 2y32 .

All the eigen values are positive, the given quadratic form is positive

definite. Index =3,rank of A =3,Signature =3.

Problem for practices
1 Reduce the real symmetric matrix A to a diagonal form given
-1 0 2
A= 0 1 2
2 2 0
2.Reduce the quadratic from to canonical form through an orthogonal
transformation.
Application of Matrices:
 Encryption
In encryption, we use it to scramble data for security purposes
to encode and to decode this data we need matrices. There is
a key that helps encode and decode data which is generated
by matrices.
 Games especially 3D
They use it to alter the object, in 3d space. They use the 3d
matrix to 2d matrix to convert it into the different objects as per
requirement.
 Economics and business
To study the trends of a business, shares, and more. To create business
models etc.

 In Geology, matrices are used for making seismic surveys. They are
used for plotting graphs, statistics and also to do scientific studies and
research in almost different fields.

 In robotics and automation, matrices are the basic components for

robot movements. The inputs for controlling robots are obtained based on
the calculations from matrices and these are very accurate movements
Thank you