QUANTUM THEORY

AND THE ATOM

ELECTRONS IN ATOMS AND THE
PERIODIC TABLE
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Einstein’s theory of light’s dual nature
accounted for several unexplainable
phenomena, but it did not explain why
atomic emission spectra of elements
were discontinuous.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• In 1913, Niels Bohr, a Danish
physicist working in Rutherford’s
laboratory, proposed a quantum
model for the hydrogen atom that
seemed to answer this question.
• This model correctly predicted the
frequency lines in hydrogen’s atomic
emission spectrum.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
•The lowest allowable energy
state of an atom is called its
ground state.
•When an atom gains energy,
it is in an excited state.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Bohr suggested that an electron
moves around the nucleus only in
certain allowed circular orbits.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Each orbit was given a
number, called the
quantum number.
•Bohr orbits are like
steps of a ladder, each
at a specific distance
from the nucleus and
each at a specific
energy.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Hydrogen’s single electron is in the n =
1 orbit when it is in the ground state.
• When energy is added, the electron moves
to the n = 2 orbit.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• The electron releases energy as it
falls back towards the ground
state.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Bohr’s model explained the
hydrogen’s spectral lines, but failed
to explain any other element’s lines.
• For this and other reasons, the
Bohr model was replaced with a
more sophisticated model called the
quantum-mechanical or wave-
mechanical model.
 QUANTUM
MECHANICAL
MODEL
 THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL
MODEL IS BASED ON QUANTUM
THEORY, WHICH SAYS MATTER
ALSO HAS PROPERTIES
ASSOCIATED WITH WAVES.
ACCORDING TO QUANTUM
THEORY, IT’S IMPOSSIBLE TO
KNOW THE EXACT POSITION AND
MOMENTUM OF AN ELECTRON AT
THE SAME TIME.
IN 1926, ERWIN
SCHRODINGER USED A
MATHEMATICAL EQUATION
TO DESCRIBE THE BEHAVIOR
OF THE ELECTRON IN A
HYDROGEN ATOM. QUANTUM
MECHANICAL MODEL
DESCRIBES ELECTRONS IN
ATOMS BASED ON
SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION.
THIS IS KNOWN AS
UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE.
THE QUANTUM MODEL OF
THE ATOM USES COMPLEX
SHAPES OF ORBITALS
(SELDOM CALLED ELECTRON
CLOUDS) VOLUMES OF SPACE
IN WHICH THERE IS LIKELY
TO BE AN ELECTRON.
FOUR NUMBERS, CALLED
QUANTUM NUMBERS, WERE
INTRODUCED TO DESCRIBE THE
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ELECTRONS AND THEIR
ORBITALS:
- PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER
-ANGULAR MOMENTUM
QUANTUM NUMBER
-MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER
- SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER
Quantum Mechanical Model
• Louis de Broglie (1892–1987)
hypothesized that particles, including
electrons, could also have wavelike
behaviors.
• Electrons do not behave like particles
flying through space.
• We cannot, in general, describe their
exact paths.
Quantum Mechanical Model
• Heisenberg showed it is impossible to
take any measurement of an object
without disturbing it.
• The Heisenberg uncertainty
principle states that it is
fundamentally impossible to know
precisely both the velocity and
position of a particle at the same time.
• Small, dense, positively charged
nucleus surrounded by electron
clouds of probability.
• Does not define an exact path an
electron takes around the nucleus.
• Electron cloud – the volume in
which the electron is found 90% of
the time
Quantum Numbers
• Used to describe an electron’s
behavior or likely location
• There are four with variables: n, l,
ml, & s
Quantum Mechanical Model
• Orbitals are different from orbits in that
they represent probability maps that
show a statistical distribution of where
the electron is likely to be found.
Quantum Mechanical Model
• In the quantum-mechanical model, a
number and a letter specify an
orbital.
• The lowest-energy orbital is called the
1s orbital.
• It is specified by the number 1 and the
letter s.
 THE
PRINCIPAL
QUANTUM
NUMBER
 describes the average distance
of the orbital from the nucleus-
and the energy electron in an
atom.
it can have the positive integer
values: 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. the larger
value of n , the higher the energy
and the larger the orbital
(electron shells)
Principal Quantum Number (n)
• Corresponds to the energy levels 1
through n. However, we will only deal
with 1-7.
• Average distance from the nucleus
increases with increasing principal
quantum number, therefore n
designates the size of the electron cloud
• Maximum # of electrons in each energy
level is calculated by 2n2 where n = the
energy level (1-7).
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• The number is called the Principal
quantum number (n) and it
indicates the relative size and
energy of atomic orbitals.
• n specifies the atom’s major energy
levels, called the principal energy
levels.
 ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
QUANTUM
NUMBER
DESCRIBES THE SHAPE OF
THE ORBITAL, AND THE
SHAPE IS LIMITED BY THE
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM
NUMBER. IT CAN HAVE
POSITIVE INTEGER VALUES
FROM 0 TO N—1. FOR
EXAMPLE, IF THE VALUE N IS
3, THREE VALUES ARE
ALLOWED FOR /: 0, 1, AND 2.
Energy Sublevels (l)
• 2nd quantum number
• The number of sublevels equals the
value of the principal quantum number
(n) for that level.
• Sublevels are named in the following
order - s, p, d, f.
• The l number designates the shape of
the electron cloud.
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• Energy sublevels are contained
within the principal energy levels.
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• Each energy sublevel relates to
orbitals of different shape.

s, p, d, f

s, p, d
s, p
s
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• s sublevel:
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• p sublevel:
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• d sublevel:
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• f sublevel:
 THE
MAGNETIC
QUANTUM
NUMBER
THIS IS DESIGNATED AS: ML
THIS NUMBER DESCRIBES
HOW THE VARIOUS ORBITALS
ARE ORIENTED IN SPACE. THE
VALUES ALLOWED ARE FROM
INTEGERS -/ TO 0 TO +/.
THIS MEANS THAT THERE
ARE THREE DIFFERENT P
SUBSHELLS FOR A
PARTICULAR ORBITAL.
ORBITALS (M)
3rd quantum number (m)
The space occupied by a pair of electrons in a
certain sublevel.
Sublevel s - 1 orbital
p - 3 orbitals
d - 5 orbitals
f - 7 orbitals
Each orbital can hold two electrons.
m represents the orientation in space of the
orbitals (x axis, y axis, z axis)
S sublevel – spherical
shape
P sublevel - dumbbell
shaped
D sublevel
clover-leaf shaped
F sublevel – irregularly shaped
THE SPIN
QUANTUM
NUMBER
desigated as: ml

this number describes the direction

the electron is spinning in a magnetic
field- either clockwise or counter
clockwise. only two values are
allowed. for each subshell there can
only be two electrons, one with a
spin of +1/2another with spin of -1/2
SPIN (S)
4th quantum number
Distinguishes between the
electrons in the same orbital.
describes the electrons spin
as either clockwise or
counter-clockwise
SHAPE OF THE ELECTRON CLOUD

Size (diameter) is related to n, the

principle quantum number. The
larger n, the larger the electron
cloud.
Shape is given by the sublevel, (l).
The direction in space is given by
the orbital,(m).
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• Orbitals are sometimes represented by
dots, where the dot density is proportional
to the probability of finding the electron.
• The dot density for the 1s orbital is
greatest near the nucleus and decreases
farther away from the nucleus.
• The electron is more likely to be found
close to the nucleus than far away from it.
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
• At any given time, hydrogen’s
electron can occupy just one orbital.
• When hydrogen is in the ground state,
the electron occupies the 1s orbital.
• When the atom gains a quantum of
energy, the electron is excited to one of
the unoccupied orbitals.
Writing
Writing Atomic
Atomic Electron
Electron
Configurations
Configurations
Two
Two ways
ways ofof
writing
writing configs.
configs.
One
One is
is called
called spdf notation
for H, atomic number = 1
the spdf
the spdf
notation.
notation. 1 no. of
1s electrons

value of l
value of n
 Electron
Electron
Configurations
Configurations
Two
Two ways
ways ofof
writing ORBITAL
ORBITAL BOX BOX NOTATION
NOTATION
writing configs.
configs. for
for He,
He, atomic
atomic number
number == 22
Other
Other is
is called
called Arrows
Arrows
the
the orbital
orbital box
box 22 depict
notation.
notation. 11 ss depict
electron
electron
1s spin
spin
1s

One electron has n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + 1/2

Other electron has n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = - 1/2