Origin and Evolution of Life

Origin and
Evolution of life
By Dr. Ameya Dalvi
01
ORIGIN OF LIFE
Origin of life
• The living matter shows attributes or characters like responsiveness, growth,
metabolism, energy transformations and reproduction.
• As far as origin of life is considered, it has remained an enigma for intellectuals at all
times.
• Despite of advancements in various fields like biochemistry, astrobiology, geography,

molecular biology, etc. scientists are unable to ascertain the truth.
Origin of life
a. Theory of special creation :
• It is the oldest theory and is based on religious belief.
• States that all living organisms are created by a super-natural power.
b. Cosmozoic theory/Theory of Panspermia :

• Theory advocates that life did not arise on the planet Earth.
• It may have descended to the earth from other planets in the form of spores or micro-
organisms, called cosmozoa/panspermia.
Origin of life
c. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis) :
• As per theory, life originated from non-living material spontaneously. This theory was
disproved by Louis Pasteur.
d. Theory of biogenesis :
• As per theory, living organisms are always produced from pre-existing living forms,
by process called reproduction.
• Theory of biogenesis explain only the continuity of life.

02
What causes elasticity?
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF
LIFE
Chemical Evolution of Life
• Life originated on earth by combinations of several chemicals through constant
chemical reactions over a long period of time.
• This theory is also called self assembly theory of origin of life or biochemical origin
of life
• Theory was first formulated by Haeckel but later developed by the Russian scientist
Alexander I. Oparin (1924) and British biologist J. B. S. Haldane (1929).
• The process of chemical evolution can be divided into following steps :
a. Origin of Earth and Primitive atmosphere
b. Formation of ammonia, water and methane
c. Formation of simple organic molecules
d. Formation of complex organic molecules
e. Formation of Nucleic acids
f. Formation of Protobionts or Procells
g. Formation of first cell

a. Origin of Earth and Primitive atmosphere :
• The origin of universe was explained by the Big-Bang theory of Georges Lemaitre
(1931) the Universe originated about 20 billion years ago by a single huge titanic
explosion.
• As the universe expanded, the temperature decreased and various galaxies of solid
objects were formed.
• Milky Way is one such galaxy of which our solar system is one small part.
a. Origin of Earth and Primitive atmosphere :
• Earth is one of the planets of solar system.
• When formed, it was a rotating cloud of hot gases and cosmic dust called Nebula.
• The primitive atmosphere of the earth was quite different from the present one and it
was of a reducing type, devoid of free oxygen.
b. Formation of ammonia, water and methane:
• Primitive atmosphere was very hot.
• The early atmosphere was rich in hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and Sulphur of which
hydrogen being more active, it reacted with other elements to form chemicals on earth
like CH4, NH3, H2Oand H2S.
c. Formation of simple organic molecules :
• As temperature of the earth decreased, steam condensed into water that resulted in
heavy rain fall and rain water got accumulated on the land to form rivers, streams,
lakes, seas and oceans.
• The atmosphere then did not contain ozone layer and thus ultra-violet radiations
reached the surface of earth directly.
c. Formation of simple organic molecules :
• Under the influence of available energy sources such as ultra-violet rays, radiations,
lightening and volcanic activities, the early molecules of hydrocarbons, ammonia,
methane and water underwent reactions like condensation, polymerisation, oxidation
and reduction.
• These reactions resulted in formation of simple molecules like monosaccharides,

amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, fatty acids, glycerol, etc.
• Haldane described it as the ‘‘hot dilute soup’’ or ‘‘primitive broth’’.

d. Formation of complex organic molecules:
• The primitive broth was neutral and free from oxygen.
• Polymerization of amino acids formed photoproteins which later formed proteins.
• Formation of protein molecules is considered as landmark in the origin of life.
e. Formation of Nucleic acids :

• Nucleotides may have been formed by the reaction between phosphoric acid, sugar and
nitrogenous bases (purines and pyrimidines).
• Number of nucleotides join together to form nucleic acids (RNA, DNA).

f. Formation of Protobionts or Procells :
• Nucleic acids along with inorganic and organic molecules formed the first form of life
called protobionts.
• Protobionts are formed due to coacervation i.e. aggregation of organic molecules.
• Oparin(1924) called them coacervates and Sidney Fox called proteinoids or

microspheres.
• Coacervates grew in size by taking up material from surrounding aqueous medium.

f. Formation of Protobionts or Procells :
• As they grew, they became thermodynamically unstable and split into smaller units,
comparable to daughter cells of budding organisms.
• Microspheres are proteinoids formed from colloidal hydrophilic complexes

surrounded by water molecules.
• Coacervates and microspheres were non-living colloidal aggregations of lipids and

proteinoids respectively
• These colloidal aggregations turned into first primitive living system called eobionts
or protocell.
g. Formation of first cell :
• When RNA or DNA system developed within protocells, they look like bacteria or
viruses.
• First cell was anaerobic, heterotrophic and obtained energy by chemoheterotrophic

processes.
Urey and Miller’s Experiment :
• Stanley L. Miller and his teacher Harold C. Urey provided the first experimental
evidence in support of chemical evolution theory of Oparin.
• They designed a glass-apparatus called spark-discharge apparatus.
• Methane, ammonia and hydrogen gases were pumped in the proportion of 1:2:2 into
the glass chamber.
Urey and Miller’s Experiment :
• A tube carrying water vapour was also connected to the chamber.
• Lightning effect was mimicked by electric discharge carbon arc spark in the chamber.
• Process of evaporation and precipitation was also simulated by the use of heating
mantle and condenser respectively.
• The mixture of CH4, NH3, H2 was exposed continuously to electric discharge for
several days causing the gases to interact, after which these were condensed.
• The liquid collected in the U-tube turned brown.
• Chemical analysis of this liquid reported the presence of simple organic compounds.
• Experiment strongly supports that the simple molecules present in the earth’s early
atmosphere combined to form the organic building blocks of life.
RNA World Hypothesis :
• Oparin Haldane theory and Miller Urey experiment gives us an understanding that
pathway of origin of life on earth goes from non-living to living.
• We are also aware that certain proteins which we call enzymes, catalyze the chemical
reactions in the cell.
• It was in 1980 that Sidney Altman and Thomas Cech independently found out that
RNAs can also act as biocatalysts.
RNA World Hypothesis :
• These catalytic RNAs are called as Ribozymes.
• The hypothesis suggests that early life must have been based exclusively on nucleic
acids, most probably RNA.
• RNA is found abundantly in all living cells, it is structurally related to DNA and
chains of RNA can evolve or undergo mutations, replicate and catalyze reactions, all
support this hypothesis.
• Biomolecules like Acetyl-Co-A have a nucleotide in their molecular structure.
• Major evidence is existence of ribosome (the protein assembly unit) in the cell.
• In ribosomes, translation process is catalysed by RNA.
• These molecules might have undergone repeated replication and mutation forming
varieties of RNA molecules with varying sizes and catalytic properties.
• In due course, a double stranded stable structure, the DNA, might have been formed
and thus continued the ongoing journey which resulted in rich biodiversity on earth.
03
What is stress?
ORGANIC EVOLUTION
Organic Evolution
• Evolution means the act of unrolling or unfolding of nature.
• It brings about orderly changes from one form to another.
• These changes result in descendants becoming different from the ancestors.
• According to Charles Darwin, evolution is ‘descent with modification’.
• According to Lamarck’s theory of inheritance of acquired characters the traits are

acquired due to internal force, changes in environment, new needs and the use and
disuse of organs.
Organic Evolution
• After several generations, it gives rise to new species.
• This theory was disproved by a German biologist August Weismann.
• He concluded that variations produced in somatic cells (somatoplasm) are not

inherited while variations produced in germ cells (germplasm) are inherited to next
generation and he proposed the theory of Germplasm.
04
What is stress?
DARWINISM
DARWINISM
• Darwinism (theory of origin of species by Natural Selection).
• Charles Darwin published a book ‘‘The origin of species by Natural Selection’’ in

1859, based on his collections of living and fossil material.
• Darwin observed that the natural forces resulted in the changes in the earth’s crust
along South America.
DARWINISM
• He observed variety of strange plants and animal in Galapagos islands and other
nearby islands in the Archipelago in terms of variations between the tortoises and
finches.
• He was also influenced by plant/animal breeders who by using artificial selection,

altered the characteristic of cultivated plant and domestic animals.
DARWINISM
Darwinism is based on five main postulates:
1. Overproduction (Prodigality of nature)
2. Struggle for existence
3. Organic variations
4. Natural selection
5. Origin of new species (speciation)

DARWINISM
1. Overproduction (Prodigality of nature)—
• It is the natural tendency to produce more number of progeny in geometric ratio, for
perpetuation of the species.
• He observed prodigality potential many species of plants and animals e.g. Salmon fish
produces about 28 lakh eggs in a single season.
2. Struggle for existence -

• Tendency of over production leads to the struggle for existence between the members
of population for limited supply of food or to overcome adverse environmental
conditions or for a space or to escape from enemies etc.
DARWINISM
3. Organic variations -
• The variations speak for all kinds of differences that occur in morphology, physiology,
nutrition, habit behavioral patterns etc.
• Variations were observed among members of the same species and even in different
species.
4. Natural selection -
• According to Darwin, the principle by which useful variations are preserved by
nature, is called ‘Natural Selection’.
• H. Spencer named this process as ‘survival of fittest’.

DARWINISM
5. Origin of new species (speciation) -
• As favorable variations are transmitted from generation to generation, successive
generations become better adapted to environment.
• Gradually these adaptation with few new modification become fixed in the life cycle
and finally giving rise to a new species.
DARWINISM
Evidences Darwinism include -

• Evolution of long-necked Giraffe to pluck and eat more leaves from tall trees and
woody climbers.
• Black colour peppered moths evolved gradually as new species.
• DDT resistance in mosquitoes-intensive DDT spraying destroyed all types of

mosquitoes. Such resistant mosquitoes survived and reproduce giving rise to more
resistant offspring.
DARWINISM
Drawbacks and Objections to Darwinism--
a. He considered minute fluctuating variation as principal factors which are not heritable
and not part of evolution.
b. He also did not distinguish somatic and germinal variation and considered all
variations are heritable.
c. He did not explain the ‘arrival of the fittest’.
d. He also did not explain the cause, origin and inheritance of variations of vestigial
organs
e. Darwinism also did not explain existence of neutral flowers and the sterility of
hybrids.
05
What is stress?
MUTATION THEORY
Mutation Theory
• Proposed by Hugo de Vries (1901), after the rediscovery of Mendel’s work (1900).
• He found that though most of the offspring's resembled their parents in many
characters, some of the offspring's show the appearance of sudden or spontaneous
variation clearly different from the phenotypic expression of the parent.
• These sudden variations were called mutations or discontinuous variations.
• He noted that these sudden changes are inheritable, and proposed the Mutation theory.
Mutation Theory
The main features of mutation theory are :
• Mutations are large, sudden and discontinuous variations in a population.
• These changes are inheritable.
• Mutations provide the raw material for organic evolution.

Mutation Theory
• Mutation may be useful or harmful. Useful mutations are selected by nature.
• Accumulation of these mutations over a period of time leads to the origin and
establishment of new species.
• Harmful mutation may persist or get eliminated by nature.

Mutation Theory
Objections to Mutation Theory :
I. The large and discontinuous variation observed by Hugo de Vries were actually
due to chromosomal aberrations were as gene mutations usually bring about minor
changes.
ii. Rate of mutation is very slow as compared to the requirement of evolution.
iii. Chromosomal aberrations have little significance in evolution as they are quite
unstable.
06
What is stress?
MODERN SYNTHETIC
THEORY OF EVOLUTION
Modern Synthetic Theory Of Evolution
• It is the result of true synthesis of all biological discipline.
• Studies pertaining to genetical, ecological, anatomical, geographical, paleontological

etc. were perused to explain mechanism of evolution.
• R. Fischer, J. B. S. Haldane, T. Dobzhansky J. Huxley, E. Mayr, Simpson, Stebbins,

Fisher, Sewall Wright, Medel, T. H. Morgan etc. are the main contributors of modern
theory of evolution.
• Stebbins in his book discussed five key factors such as gene mutations, mutations in
the chromosome structure and number, genetic recombinations, natural selection and
reproductive isolation, contributed in the evolution of new species.
• All individuals of the some species constitute a population.
• The populations occur in small groups of ‘interbreeding populations', which is

referred as ‘Mendelian population’.
• The total genetic information encoded in sum total of genes in a Mendelian population
is called gene pool.
• Gene pool means the total number of genes of all individuals in a population.
• The gametes produced by individual furnish a pool of genes of next generation from
which the genes will be selected.
• The gene pool changes due to replacement of one generation by another in the
Mendelian population.
• Thus any change in the gene pool affects population.
• According to Mendel, every gene that influences a trait has two alleles.
• The proportion of an allele in the gene pool, to the total number of alleles at a given
locus, is called gene frequency.
Modern synthetic theory comprises five main factors that are broadly divided into three
main concepts like –
i. Genetic variations caused due to various aspects of mutation,

recombination and migration.
Ii. Natural selection
Iii. Isolation, for explaining the evolution of species.

a. Genetic variations :
• The change in gene and gene frequencies, is known as genetic variation.
i. Gene Mutation :
• Sudden permanent heritable change is called mutation.
• Mutation that occurs within the single gene, is called point mutation or gene mutation.
ii. Genetic recombination :
• In sexually reproducing organisms, during gamete formation, exchange of genetic
material occurs between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. This is
called crossing over.
• Fertilization between opposite mating gametes leads to various recombination's
resulting into the phenotypic variations causing change in the frequencies of alleles.
iii. Gene flow :

• Gene flow is movement of genes into or out of a population.
• Gene movement may be in the form of migration of organism, or gametes (dispersal
of pollens) or segments of DNA (transformation).
iv. Genetic drift :
• Any random fluctuation (alteration) in allele frequency, occurring in the natural
population by pure chance, is called genetic drift.
• Genetic drift is also an important factor for evolutionary change.
v. Chromosomal aberrations :
• The structural, morphological change in chromosome due to rearrangement, is called
chromosomal aberrations.
Chromosomal aberrations occur due to--
a. Deletion : Loss of genes from chromosome.
b. Duplication : Genes are repeated or doubled in number on chromosome.
c. Inversion : A particular segment of chromosome is broken and gets reattached to the

same chromosome in an inverted position due to 1800 twist.
d. Translocation : Transfer (transposition) of a part of chromosome or a set of genes to

a non-homologous chromosome is called translocation
Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution
b. Natural selection :
• According to Darwin, natural selection is the main driving force behind the evolution.
• Natural selection is the process by which better adapted organisms grow and produce
more number of offspring's in the population.
• Selection against harmful mutations leads to a mutation balance in which allele
frequency of harmful recessives remain constant generation after generation.
• Natural selection encourages those genes or traits that assure highest degree of
adaptive efficiency between population and its environment.
• Industrial melanism is one of the best example for natural selection.
Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution
c. Isolation :
• Isolation is the separation of the population of a particular species into smaller units
which prevents interbreeding between them.
• Some barrier which prevents gene flow or exchange of genes between isolated
populations, is called isolating mechanism.
• The isolating mechanisms are of two types namely, geographical isolation and
reproductive isolation.
I. Geographical Isolation :
• It is also called as physical isolation.
• It occurs when an original population is divided into two or more groups by
geographical barriers such as river, ocean, mountain, glacier etc.
• The separated populations develop distinct gene pool and they do not interbreed, and
thus new species have been formed by geographical isolation.
II. Reproductive Isolation :

• Reproductive isolations occurs due to change in genetic material, gene pool and
structure of genital organs.
Types of Isolating Mechanisms :
A. Pre-mating or pre-zygotic isolating mechanism :
i. Habitat isolation or (Ecological isolation)
ii. Seasonal or temporal isolation
iii. Ethological isolation
iv. Mechanical Isolation
B. Post-mating or Post-zygotic barriers :
i. Gamete mortality
ii. Zygote mortality
iii. Hybrid sterility
Types of Isolating Mechanisms :
A. Pre-mating or pre-zygotic isolating mechanism :
• This mechanism prevent fertilization and zygote formation.
i. Habitat isolation or (Ecological isolation):

• Members of a population living in the same geographic region but occupy separate
habitats so that potential mates do not meet.
ii. Seasonal or temporal isolation :
• Members of a population living in the same geographic region but are sexually mature
at different years or different times of the year.
iii. Ethological isolation :

• Due to specific mating behaviour the members of population do not mate.
iv. Mechanical Isolation :

• Members of two population have difference in the structure of reproductive organs.
B. Post-mating or Post-zygotic barriers :
i. Gamete mortality -
• Gametes have a limited life span.
• Due to one or the other reasons, if union of the two gametes does not occur in the
given time, it results in the gamete mortality.
ii. Zygote mortality -

• Here, egg is fertilized but zygote dies due to one or the other reasons.
iii. Hybrid sterility -

• Hybrids develop to maturity but become sterile due to failure of proper gametogenesis
(meiosis). e.g. Mule is an intergeneric hybrid which is sterile.
07
What is stress?
MECHANISM OF
ORGANIC EVOLUTION
Mechanism of organic evolution
• One has to give the importance to the population while considering the mechanism of
evolution.
• It is the population that evolves and not its individual members.
• The following are the basic processes which bring about evolution viz.
Mutations, gene recombination, gene flow (migration), genetic drift, natural
selection, isolation and speciation.
Mutations -
• These are permanent heritable changes in the genetic material of an organism.
• Gene mutations produce new alleles which are added to gene pool.
Gene recombination -
• These are variation produce due to coming together of alleles during sexual
reproduction.
Gene flow –
• It is the transfer of gene during interbreeding of populations that are genetically
different.
Genetic drift -
• It is the transfer of gene during interbreeding of populations that are genetically
different.
• Genetic drifts are random or directionless
• The effect of genetic drift is more significant in small population than in large
population.
• Any alternation in allete frequency in the natural population by chance, is called
genetic drift.
• The original drifted population (i.e. colonizing ancestor/pioneer) becomes ‘founders’
and the effect is called founder effect.
• It is a process by which better adapted individuals with useful variations are selected
by nature and leave greater or more number of progenies (Differential reproduction).
Natural selection -
• Type of Natural selection :
a. Stabilizing selection : (Balancing selection)

1. Here more individuals of a population acquired a mean character value.
2. It tends to favour intermediate forms and eliminate both the phenotypic extreme.
3. It reduces variations.
4. It does not lead to evolutionary change but tend to maintain phenotypic stability
within population, therefore, it is described as stabilizing selection.
5. Genetically stabilizing selection represents a situation where a population is adapted
to its environment.
b. Directional selection :
1. In this type, more individuals acquired value other than the mean character value.
2. Natural selection acts to eliminate one of the extremes of the phenotypic range and
favour the other. e.g. systematic elimination of homozygous recessives.
3. Directional selection operates for many generations, it results in an evolutionary trend

within a population and shifting a peak in one direction.
4. e.g. Industrial melanism, DDT resitant mosquito etc.

c. Disruptive Natural selection :
1. Here more number of individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the
distribution curve.
2. Nature select extreme phenotypes and eliminate intermediate. Hence two peaks are formed
in distribution of traits.
3. This kind of selection is rare.
4. It ensures the effect on the entire gene pool of a population, considering all mating types or
systems.
Isolation -
• It is separation of a single interbreeding population into subunits.
Speciation –
• The sub units of single interbreeding population due to the geographical barriers like
river, mountains, desert, sea etc. become isolated in such a way that their
interbreeding is prevented.
08
What is stress?
HARDY-WEINBERG’S
PRINCIPLE
Hardy-Weinberg’s principle
• It is also known as Hardy-Weinberg’s equilibrium law.
• The law states that ‘at equilibrium point both the gene (allele) frequency and
geneotypic frequency remain constant from generation to generation’.
• It occurs only in the diploid, sexually reproducing, large, free interbreeding

population in which mating is random and no selection or other factors are
present for changing the allele frequency.
• e.g. A single locus has two alleles (A and a).
• The frequencies of these allele are p and q respectively.
• The allele frequency for any locus is always one. i.e. P + Q = 1.
• The genotypic frequencies of both the alleles are represented by = 1. The binomial
expansion of this is + 2pq + = 1 i.e. AA= , aa= and for 2Aa= 2pq.
• Hence + 2pq + = 1.This is a binomial expansion of .

• Explained by Punnet square as follow.
• Like allele frequency, the genotypic frequencies together are also equal to 1.
• There are few factors such as gene migration (gene flow), genetic drift, mutation,
genetic recombination's, natural selection, non-random mating, etc. which affect or
change the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
09
What is stress?
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
Adaptive Radiation
• The process of evolution which results in transformation of original species to many
different varieties, is called, adaptive radiation.
• Example of adaptive radiation is Australian Marsupials.
Adaptive Radiation
• Darwin concluded that the American main land species of bird was the original one
from which they migrated to the different islands of Galpagos.
• From original seed eating features many other forms with altered beaks evolved into
insectivorous features.
• In Australia, there are many marsupial mammals who evolved from common ancestor.
10
WhatEVIDENCES
is stress? OF
ORGANIC EVOLUTION
Evidences of organic evolution
• The theory of organic evolution states that the present day complex organisms have
originated from earlier simpler forms of life.
• The process of evolution is supported by evidences provided by various branches of

biology such as PALEONTOLOGY, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,
EMBRYOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY.
A. PALEONTOLOGY :
• The study of ancient life with help of fossils is called paleontology.
• The study of fossils provides the most convincing and direct evidence of evolution.
• Fossils are formed in sedimentary rocks, amber (yellowish fossils resin), ice, peat bogs
etc.
• During fossilization, the primitive forms of organisms occupy the older, lower layers
and the advanced forms occupy the upper, more recent layers of the earth.
Types of fossils :
1. Actual remains :
• These are most common type of fossils.
• The plants, animals and human bodies got embedded in permafrost of arctic or alpine
snow remain preserved in the actual state, e.g. Wooly Mammoth in Siberia.
2. Moulds :
• These are the hardened encasements formed in the outer parts of organic remains
which later decayed leaving cavities.
3. Cast :
• They are hardened pieces of mineral matter deposited in the cavities of moulds.
4. Compressions :
• Internal structure is absent but a thin carbon film indicates the outline of external
features.
Significance of Paleontology :
1. It is useful in reconstruction of phylogeny.
2. It helps in studying various forms and structures of extinct animals.
3. It provides record of missing link between two groups of organisms.
4. It helps in the study of habits of extinct organisms.

Connecting link (missing link) :
• These are fossil forms transitional or intermediate between two groups of organisms.
• It shows some characters to both the groups.

Connecting link (missing link) :
• e.g. Archaeopteryx (between reptiles and birds)& Seymouria (between amphibians

and reptiles).
Archaeopteryx lithographica :
• It is fossilized crow size toothed bird found from jurassic rocks in Germany.
• It is known as missing link between reptiles and birds because it shows characters of
both.
Reptilian characters :
1. Presence of long tail, claws and scales on the body.
2. Single headed ribs.
3. Abdominal ribs are present which look like ribs of crocodile.
4. Jaws with homodont teeth.

Reptilian characters :
5. Sternum without keel.
6. Bones are solid (non-pneumatic).
7. Hind limbs had four clawed digits.

Avian characters :
1. Feathery exoskeleton.
2. Forelimbs are modified into wings.
3. Jaws are modified into beak.
4. Skull bone is completely fused.
5. Limb bones are bird like.

.
It is very clear that birds evolved from reptiles. Huxley justified this by calling birds as
glorified reptiles
B. Comparative Anatomy :
• Morphology deals with study of external structures while, anatomy deals with study
of internal structures.
a. Homologous organs :
• Homologous organs are those organs, which are structurally similar but perform
different functions.
• The structural similarities between the homologous organs indicates that they have a
common ancestor.
b. Analogous organs :
• Analogous organs are those which are structurally dissimilar but functionally similar.
• Analogous organs leads to convergent evolution i.e. different organisms shows same
superficial structural similarities due to similar functions or habitat.
• These organs do not help to trace the common ancestry.
• Thus analogous organs do not have significant role in evolution.

c. Vestigial organs :
• Vestigial organs are imperfectly developed and non-functional, degenerate structures

which were functional in some related and other animals or in ancestors.
• Examples : Presence of wisdom teeth, Coccyx (tail bone).

C. Embryology
• Refers to the study of development of an embryo of organism from a fertilized egg to
a young one
• The early embryos of all vertebrates show similarity in shape and structure.
Similarities between embryos of all vertebrates suggests the all vertebrates evolved
from a common ancestor.
• Biogenetic Law – Ernst Haeckel

D. Molecular Evidences :
1. Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life in all organisms.
2. Similarities in proteins and genetic material performing a similar function among

diverse organisms gives evidence of a common ancestry.
3. ATP is the energy source in all living organisms.

11
What is stress?
SPECIATION
Speciation
• The process of formation of a new species from the pre-existing species is called
speciation.
• Species is a group of similar organisms that can interbreed and produce a fertile
offspring in nature.
a. Intraspecific Speciation :
i. Allopatric speciation
ii. Sympatric speciation
Speciation
• i. Allopatric speciation :
• Formation of a new species due to separation of a segment of population from the
original population by distanced or a geographical barrier cutting across the species
range.
• Migration of individual also causes allopatric speciation.
• ii. Sympatric speciation:

• Formation of species within single population without geographical isolation.
• Formed due to reproductive isolation.
• Mutations are helpful in sympatric speciation.
Speciation
b. Interspecific Speciation :
Hybridization :
• Two different species on crossing may give rise to a new species. e.g. Mule is a
hybrid produced by interbreeding between a male donkey and a female horse.
12
What is stress? TIME
GEOLOGICAL
SCALE
Geological time scale
• Geological time scale is used to understand the sequence of events that to place on the
earth in different ages over a period of time.
• It is divided into six major ‘Eras’ Eras ended with major environmental changes on
earth resulting into extinction and emergence of new species.
• The first life appeared on the earth some 2000 million years ago.
• Life began in the sea water and plants were the first living beings to adapt to terrestrial
life.
• Fishes evolved and diversified. Some developed stout and strong fins could go to land
and come back to water. Reptiles evolved from amphibians.
• They are the first true land vertebrates.
• About 200 million years ago (mya) some reptiles moved back to aquatic mode of life
and gained fish like form as seen in Ichthyosaurs.
• Decline of giant reptiles marked the beginning of dominance of mammals.

• Early mammals were small shrew like organisms, but this group diversified.
• From the fossil records we can trace complete evolutionary history of horse, elephant,
dog, etc.
• Human beings are the most evolved animals on the earth.

13
What is stress?
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Human Evolution
Human Evolution
• It has been traced that the human evolution appeared to have evolved
from a tree dwelling shrew like animal.
• During this period, dwindling forests forced arboreal mammals to adapt

to life on land.
• Special characteristics have been acquired by man in the course of

evolution.
Human Evolution
Major changes that took place in evolution of man :
• Increase in size and complexity of brain and enhanced intelligence
• Increase in cranial capacity
• Bipedal locomotion
• Opposable thumb
• Erect posture
Human Evolution
Major changes that took place in evolution of man :
• Shortening of forelimbs and lengthening of hind limbs
• Development of chin
• Broadening of pelvic girdle
• Development of lumbar curvature
• Social and cultural development (articulated speech, art, development of

tools)
Classification of mammals
Human Evolution
DRYOPITHECUS
• Appearance : Ape like
• Site of fossil records : Lake Victoria of Africa, Haritalynga, Himachal

Pradesh
• Period : Miocene epoch 20 – 25 mya
• Posture : Semi-Erect
• Special features : Close similarity to chimpanzee

Human Evolution
RAMAPITHECUS
• Appearance : Man like
• Site of fossil records : Shivalik Hills in India and even in Kenya
• Period : Miocene and early Pliocene epoch 14 -12 mya
• Posture : Erect
Human Evolution
AUSTRALOPITHECUS
• Appearance : Connecting link between Ape and man
• Site of fossil records : Toung in South Africa, Ethiopia, Tanzania
• Period : late Pliocene or early Pleistocene epoch about 4 – 1.8 mya
• Skeletal features : Not taller than 4 feet, jaws larger, Prognathus face, chin
absent, Lumbar Curvature present.
• Posture : Erect
• Cranial capacity : 450 – 650 cc
• Special features : Man with Ape Brain
Human Evolution
HOMO HABILIS
• Appearance : Handy man like
• Site of fossil records : Olduvai Gorge Tanzania in Africa
• Period : Late Pliocene or early Pleistocene 2.5 to 1.4 mya
• Skeletal features : Lower jaw, Dentition more like Modern man,
Smaller molars
• Posture :
• Cranial capacity : 650-800 cc
• Special features : probably did not eat meat, made tools from stones,
nicknamed Handy man
Human Evolution
HOMO ERECTUS
• Appearance : Ape man
• Site of fossil records : Java and Peking
• Period :middle of Pleistocene epoch 1.5 mya ago
• Skeletal features : 5 feet in Height, prognathous face, massive jaws,
Huge teeth, chin absent, Bony eyebrow ridges present
• Posture : Erect
• Cranial capacity : 900 cc
• Special features : probably ate meat, Omnivorous, might have used
fire
Human Evolution
NEANDERTHAL MAN
• Appearance : Modern Prehistoric man
• Site of fossil records : Neanderthal valley, Germany
• Period : Late Pleistocene epoch 100000 to 40000 ago
• Skeletal features : Heavy built short prominent brow ridges low forehead,
deep jaws, chin absent, outwardly curved thigh bones
• Posture : Erect
• Special features : used hide, buried their dead, constructed flint tools
Human Evolution
HOMO SAPIENS
• Appearance : Modern Man
• Site of fossil records : Africa, 75000 to 10000 mya
• Posture : Erect
• Special features : developed distinct races. Developed cave art about 18000 yrs
ago
Human Evolution
• Increase in intelligence necessitated physical development so that body and brain
could be used effectively and productively.
• Bipedal locomotion, upright posture coupled with stereoscopic vision helped man to
move around safely on land.
• Evolutionary history of man was traced with the help of fossil remains found over a
period of time.

Origin and Evolution of Life

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Origin and Evolution of Life

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Origin and

• Despite of advancements in various fields like biochemistry, astrobiology, geography,

• States that all living organisms are created by a super-natural power.

b. Cosmozoic theory/Theory of Panspermia :

• Theory of biogenesis explain only the continuity of life.

b. Formation of ammonia, water and methane

c. Formation of simple organic molecules

d. Formation of complex organic molecules

e. Formation of Nucleic acids

f. Formation of Protobionts or Procells

g. Formation of first cell

• These reactions resulted in formation of simple molecules like monosaccharides,

• Haldane described it as the ‘‘hot dilute soup’’ or ‘‘primitive broth’’.

• Polymerization of amino acids formed photoproteins which later formed proteins.

• Formation of protein molecules is considered as landmark in the origin of life.

e. Formation of Nucleic acids :

• Number of nucleotides join together to form nucleic acids (RNA, DNA).

• Protobionts are formed due to coacervation i.e. aggregation of organic molecules.

• Oparin(1924) called them coacervates and Sidney Fox called proteinoids or

• Coacervates grew in size by taking up material from surrounding aqueous medium.

• Microspheres are proteinoids formed from colloidal hydrophilic complexes

• Coacervates and microspheres were non-living colloidal aggregations of lipids and

• First cell was anaerobic, heterotrophic and obtained energy by chemoheterotrophic

• They designed a glass-apparatus called spark-discharge apparatus.

• The liquid collected in the U-tube turned brown.

• In ribosomes, translation process is catalysed by RNA.

• It brings about orderly changes from one form to another.

• These changes result in descendants becoming different from the ancestors.

• According to Charles Darwin, evolution is ‘descent with modification’.

• According to Lamarck’s theory of inheritance of acquired characters the traits are

• After several generations, it gives rise to new species.

• This theory was disproved by a German biologist August Weismann.

• He concluded that variations produced in somatic cells (somatoplasm) are not

• Charles Darwin published a book ‘‘The origin of species by Natural Selection’’ in

• He was also influenced by plant/animal breeders who by using artificial selection,

2. Struggle for existence

5. Origin of new species (speciation)

2. Struggle for existence -

• H. Spencer named this process as ‘survival of fittest’.

Evidences Darwinism include -

• Black colour peppered moths evolved gradually as new species.

• DDT resistance in mosquitoes-intensive DDT spraying destroyed all types of

• These sudden variations were called mutations or discontinuous variations.

The main features of mutation theory are :

• Mutations are large, sudden and discontinuous variations in a population.

• These changes are inheritable.

• Mutations provide the raw material for organic evolution.

• Mutation may be useful or harmful. Useful mutations are selected by nature.

• Harmful mutation may persist or get eliminated by nature.

ii. Rate of mutation is very slow as compared to the requirement of evolution.

• It is the result of true synthesis of all biological discipline.

• Studies pertaining to genetical, ecological, anatomical, geographical, paleontological

• R. Fischer, J. B. S. Haldane, T. Dobzhansky J. Huxley, E. Mayr, Simpson, Stebbins,

• All individuals of the some species constitute a population.

• The populations occur in small groups of ‘interbreeding populations', which is

• Thus any change in the gene pool affects population.

i. Genetic variations caused due to various aspects of mutation,

Ii. Natural selection

Iii. Isolation, for explaining the evolution of species.

iii. Gene flow :