Chapter 8 Seepage

Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan
Chapter 8
Seepage
© 2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
1
website, in whole or in part.
8.1 Introduction
In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in
one direction only, and it is not uniform over the entire area
perpendicular to the flow.
In such cases, the groundwater flow is generally calculated

by the use of graphs referred to as flow nets.
The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace’s equation

of continuity.
2
8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

Consider a single row of sheet piles that have been driven
into a permeable soil layer as shown below.
3

The row of sheet piles is assumed to be impervious.
The steady-state flow of water from the upstream to the downstream

side through the permeable layer is a two-dimensional flow.
For flow at a point A, we consider an elemental soil block. The block has
dimensions dx, dy, and dz.
4

Let vx and vz be the components of the discharge velocity in
the horizontal and vertical directions, respectively.
The rate of flow of water into the elemental block in the

horizontal direction is equal to vx dz dy, and in the vertical
direction it is vz dx dy.
The rates of outflow from the block in the horizontal and

vertical directions are
 v x   v z 
 v x  x dx  dzdy and  v z  z dz  dxdy
   
5

Assuming that water is incompressible and that no volume
change in the soil mass occurs, we know that the total rate
of inflow should equal the total rate of outflow.
Thus,
 v x   vz  
v 
 x x dx  dzdy  v 
 z z  dxdy   v x dzdy  v z dxdy   0
    
6

With Darcy’s law, the discharge velocities can be expressed
as
kx and kz are the hydraulic conductivities in the vertical and

horizontal directions, respectively.
7

From the previous equations we can write
If the soil is isotropic with respect to the hydraulic

conductivity (kx=kz), the preceding continuity equation for
two-dimensional flow simplifies to
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8.3 Continuity Equation for Solution

of Simple Flow Problems
 The continuity equation can be used in
 solving some simple flow problems.
 To illustrate this, let us consider a one-dimensional flow

problem, as shown in Figure in the next slide which a
constant head is maintained across a two-layered soil for
the flow of water.
 The head difference between the top of soil layer no. 1

and the bottom of soil layer no. 2 is h1. Because the flow
is in only the z direction, the continuity equation as stated
above is simplified to the form 𝜕2 h
© 2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied
2
=0 𝑜𝑟 h= 𝐴 𝑧 + 𝐴 1 to a publicly
or duplicated, or posted 2 accessible
9
website, in whole or in part. 𝜕 𝑧
Flow through a two layered soil:

For flow through soil layer no. 2, the
boundary conditions are
Condition 1: At z = , h=.
Condition 2: At z = , h=0
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Example 1(Continuity Equation)

 Refer to Figure.
 Given: 305 mm., 508
mm., 610 mm.,
h=508 mm., z=203
mm., 0.066 cm/sec,
and diameter of the soil
specimen is D=76 mm.
 Determine the rate of
flow of water through
the two-layered soil
(cm3/hr).
11
8.4 Flow Nets

The continuity equation in an isotropic
medium represents two orthogonal families of curves: the

flow lines and the equipotential lines.
A flow line is a line along which water molecules will travel

from the upstream to the downstream side in the permeable
soil medium.
An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head

at all points is equal.
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8.4 Flow Nets

These two line are perpendicular to each other.
Thus, if piezometers are placed at different points along an

equipotential line, the water level will rise to the same
elevation in all of them.
The figure on the next slide demonstrates the definition of

flow and equipotential lines for flow in the permeable soil
layer around the row of sheet piles shown in the first figure.
The height of water in the piezometer is the pressure head

at the point.
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8.4 Flow Nets
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8.4 Flow Nets

A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential
lines is called a flow net.
Flow nets are constructed to calculate groundwater flow in

the media.
To complete the graphic construction of a flow net, one must

draw the flow and equipotential lines in such a way that the
equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right angles
and the flow elements formed are approximate squares.
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8.4 Flow Nets

Below is a figure showing an example of a completed flow
net.
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8.4 Flow Nets

Another example of a flow net in an isotropic permeable
layer is shown in the figure below.
In these figures, Nf is the number of flow channels in the

flow net, and Nd is the number of potential drops.
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8.4 Flow Nets

Drawing a flow net takes several trials.
While constructing the flow net, keep the boundary conditions in mind.
For the figure on Slide 13, the following boundary conditions apply:
1. The upstream and downstream surfaces of the permeable layer are

equipotential lines.
2. Because ab and de are equipotential lines, all the flow lines intersect
them at right angles.
3. The boundary of the impervious layer—that is, line fg—is a flow line,
and so is the surface of the impervious sheet pile, line acd.
4. The equipotential lines intersect acd and fg at right angles.
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8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

In any flow net, the strip between any two adjacent flow
lines is called a flow channel.
The figure on the next slide shows a flow channel with the
equipotential lines forming square elements.
Let h1, h2, h3, h4,...hn be the piezometric levels corresponding

to the equipotential lines.
20
21

The rate of seepage through the flow channel per unit
length can be calculated as follows:
Because there is no flow across the flow lines,
From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is equal to kiA. Thus we

write
 h1  h2   h2  h3   h3  h4 
q  k   l1  k   l2  k   l3  ...
 l1   l2   l3 
22

The previous equation shows that if the flow elements are
drawn as approximate squares, then the drop in the
piezometric level between any two adjacent equipotential
lines is the same.
This is called the potential drop.
Thus and
H = head difference between the upstream and downstream

sides
Nd = number of potential drops
23

If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal to Nf,
the total rate of flow through all the channels per unit length
can be given by
For isotropic soils.
24

Alternatively, one can draw a rectangular mesh for a flow
channel, as shown in the figure below. The width-to-length
ratios for all the rectangular elements in the flow net are the
same.
25

For the previous figure we can write the equation
 h1  h2   h2  h3   h3  h4 
q  k   b1  k   b2  k   b3  ....
 l1   l2   l3 
If b1/l1 = b2/l2 = b3/l3 = … = n, then we can write the
equation
26

The figure below show a flow net for seepage around a
single row of sheet piles.
27

Note that flow channels 1 and 2 have square elements.
Thus the rate of flow through these two channels can be

obtained from the equation
28

However, flow channel 3 has rectangular elements.
These elements have a width-to-length ratio of about 0.38;

thus we have
So, the total rate of seepage can be given as
The flow channel 3 can be considered as a part-channel and

hence Nf = 2.38.
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Example 2 (Seepage Calculation from a

Flow Net)
 A flow net for flow around a single row of sheet piles in a
permeable soil layer is shown in Figure 8.7. Given that kx
= kz = k = 5xcm/sec, determine:
 a. How high (above the ground surface) the water will rise
if piezometers are placed
 at points a and b
 b. The total rate of seepage through the permeable layer
per unit length
 c. The approximate average hydraulic gradient at c
30
31
8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

Most soils exhibit some degree of anisotropy.
To account for soil anisotropy with respect to hydraulic

conductivity, we must modify the flow net construction.
The differential equation of continuity for a two-dimensional

flow is
 2h  2h
 2 0
kz / kx  x z
2
33

Substituting , we can write the equation
 2h  2h
'2
 2 0
x z
For anisotropic soils, .
In this case, the equation represents two families of curves

that do not meet at 90°.
34

To construct the flow net, use the following procedure:
1. Adopt a vertical scale for drawing the cross section.
2. Adopt a horizontal scale such that horizontal scale =

vertical scale.
3. With scales adopted as in Steps 1 and 2, plot the vertical section

through the permeable layer parallel to the direction of flow.
4. Draw the flow net for the permeable layer on the section obtained
from Step 3, with flow lines intersecting equipotential lines at right angles
and the elements as approximate squares.
35

The rate of seepage per unit length can be calculated by
H = total head loss
Nf and Nd = number of flow channels and potential drops,

respectively
36

Note that when flow nets are drawn in transformed sections,
the flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal.
When they are redrawn in a true section, these lines are not
at right angles to each other.
This fact is shown in the figure on the following slide.
37

 To construct the flow net, use the following procedure:
 Step 1: Adopt a vertical scale (that is, z axis) for
drawing the cross section.
 Step 2: Adopt a horizontal scale (that is, x axis) such
that horizontal scale
 vertical scale.
 Step 3: With scales adopted as in steps 1 and 2, plot
the vertical section through the
 permeable layer parallel to the direction of flow.
 Step 4: Draw the flow net for the permeable layer on
the section obtained from step 3, with flow lines
intersecting equipotential lines at right angles and the
 elements as approximate squares.
38

 The rate of seepage per unit length can be calculated by
 H = total headloss
 Number of flow channels and potential drops
39
40
Example 3 (Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil)

 A dam section is shown in figure below. The hydraulic
conductivity of the permeable layer in the vertical and
horizontal directions are 2x mm/s and 4x mm/s,
 respectively. Draw a flow net and calculate the seepage
loss of the dam in m3/day/m.
41
8.7 Mathematical Solution for Seepage

 The seepage under several simple hydraulic structures
can be solved mathematically.
 Harr(1962) has analyzed many such conditions. Figure

8.10 shows a nondimensional plot for the rate of
seepage around a single row of sheet piles.
 In a similar manner, Figure 8.11 is a nondimensional

plot for the rate of seepage under a dam. In Figures
8.10 and 8.11, the depth of penetration of the sheet pile
is S, and the thickness of the permeable soil layer is T.
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 Figure 8.10 Plot of q/kH against S/T for flow around a

single row of sheet piles
44
 Figure 8.11 Seepage under a dam

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Example 4 Mathematical Solution for

Seepage
 Refer to Figure 8.11.
Given: the width of the
dam, B = 6 m; length
of the dam, L = 120
m; S = 3 m; T = 6 m;
x 2.4 m; and H1-H2 =
5 m. If thE hydraulic
conductivity of the
permeable layer is
0.008 cm/sec,
estimate the seepage
under the dam (Q) in
m3/day/m.
46
8.8 Uplift Pressure under Hydraulic

Structure
 Flow nets can be used to determine the uplift pressure
at the base of a hydraulic structure.
 This general concept can be demonstrated by a simple

example. Figure 8.12a shows a weir, the base of which is
2 m below the ground surface. The necessary flow net
also has been drawn (assuming that kx = kz= k). The
pressure distribution diagram at the base of theweir can
be obtained from the equipotential lines as follows.
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 Figure 8.12 (a) A weir; (b) uplift force under a

hydraulic structure
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 There are seven equipotential drops (Nd) in the

flow net, and the difference in the
 water levels between the upstream and
downstream sides is H 7 m. The head loss for each
potential drop is H/7 7/7 1 m. The uplift pressure
at
50
8.9 Seepage through an Earth Dam on

an Impervious Base
Figure on the next slide shows a homogeneous earth
dam resting on an impervious base. Let the hydraulic
conductivity of the compacted material of which the
earth dam is made be equal to k.
The free surface of the water passing through the

dam is given by abcd. It is assumed
that abc is parabolic.
The slope of the free surface can be assumed to be

equal to the
51
52

an Impervious Base
Figure on the next slide shows a homogeneous earth
dam resting on an impervious base. Let the hydraulic
conductivity of the compacted material of which the
earth dam is made be equal to k.
The free surface of the water passing through the

dam is given by abcd. It is assumed
that abc is parabolic.
The slope of the free surface can be assumed to be

equal to the hydraulic gradient. It is also is assumed
that, because this hydraulic gradient is constant with
depth
53

an Impervious Base
Following a step-by-step procedure to obtain the
seepage rate q (per unit length of the dam):
Step 1: Obtain .
Step 2: Calculate and then 0.3 .
Step 3: Calculate d.
Step 4: With known values of a and d, calculate L
from
Step 5: With known value of L, calculate q
54
Example 5 (Seepage through an

Earthdam)
Refer to the earth dam shown in Figure below. Given
that b=45°, a=30°, B=3 m,
H=6 m, height of dam=7.6 m, and k=61x, calculate
the seepage rate, q, in /day/m length.
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 END
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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

In such cases, the groundwater flow is generally calculated

The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace’s equation

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

The steady-state flow of water from the upstream to the downstream

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

The rate of flow of water into the elemental block in the

The rates of outflow from the block in the horizontal and

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

kx and kz are the hydraulic conductivities in the vertical and

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

If the soil is isotropic with respect to the hydraulic

8.3 Continuity Equation for Solution

 To illustrate this, let us consider a one-dimensional flow

 The head difference between the top of soil layer no. 1

Flow through a two layered soil:

Example 1(Continuity Equation)

8.4 Flow Nets

medium represents two orthogonal families of curves: the

A flow line is a line along which water molecules will travel

An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head

8.4 Flow Nets

Thus, if piezometers are placed at different points along an

The figure on the next slide demonstrates the definition of

The height of water in the piezometer is the pressure head

8.4 Flow Nets

8.4 Flow Nets

Flow nets are constructed to calculate groundwater flow in

To complete the graphic construction of a flow net, one must

8.4 Flow Nets

8.4 Flow Nets

In these figures, Nf is the number of flow channels in the

8.4 Flow Nets

1. The upstream and downstream surfaces of the permeable layer are

4. The equipotential lines intersect acd and fg at right angles.

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

Let h1, h2, h3, h4,...hn be the piezometric levels corresponding

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

Because there is no flow across the flow lines,

From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is equal to kiA. Thus we

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

This is called the potential drop.

H = head difference between the upstream and downstream

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

For isotropic soils.

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

Thus the rate of flow through these two channels can be

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

These elements have a width-to-length ratio of about 0.38;

So, the total rate of seepage can be given as

The flow channel 3 can be considered as a part-channel and

Example 2 (Seepage Calculation from a

8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

To account for soil anisotropy with respect to hydraulic