Introduction to

Computer Systems
Lecture 1: Hardware
 Why computer hardware?


Organizations invest in computer hardware to improve worker productivity.

Increase revenue, reduce costs.

Provide better customer service, speed up time-to-market, and,

Enable collaboration among employees.
 Cont


Organisations that don’t invest in hardware are bound to use outdated equipment that is:
 Unreliable
 Cannot take advantage of latest technology

Obsolete hardware can disadvantage an organisation.

It is the role of the manager to define the business needs that the hardware must support.

Managers must be able to evaluate options when considering hardware investments for
their area of the business
 Computer Systems
System Unit
Output device

Output device

Output device

Input device

Input device
 The Computer System
• Computer system consists of
• central processing unit (CPU)
• primary storage
• secondary storage
• input devices
• output devices
• Communications devices.
Basic Structure with bus systems
 The System Unit
• What are common components inside the system unit?
power supply drive bays

 Processor processor

 Memory
 Adapter cards
 Sound card ports memory

 Video card
 Ports
 Drive bays
 Power supply

sound card
video card
 The System
• What is the motherboard? Unit
 Main circuit
board in system
unit
 Contains adapter
cards, processor
chips, and
memory chips
 Also called
system board
 Components1
• The CPU
• manipulates raw data into more useful form and controls the other parts
of the computer system.

• Primary storage
• temporarily stores data and program instructions during processing.
• Secondary storage
• devices store data and programs when they are not being used in
processing.
 Components 2
• Input devices
• convert data and instructions into electronic form for input into the
computer.

• Output devices
• convert electronic data produced by the computer system and display
them in a form that people can understand.

• Communication devices
• provide connections between the computer and communications
networks.
 Components 3
• Buses
• are circuitry paths for transmitting data and signals among the parts of the computer
system.
 The CPU and Primary Storage
• The CPU is the part of the computer system where the manipulation of
symbols, numbers, and letters occurs, and it controls the other parts of the
computer system.

The CPU
 Processor
• What is the central processing unit (CPU)?

 Interprets Processor
and carries
Control
Control Arithmetic
Arithmetic
out basic instructions Unit
Unit Logic
Logic Unit
Unit (ALU)
(ALU)
that operate a computer
Instructions
 Control unit directs and Data
coordinates operations in Informatio
n
computer
 Arithmetic logic unit Input Output
Devices
Data Memory Information
Devices
(ALU) performs
arithmetic, comparison,
Instructions
and logical operations Data
Informatio
 Also called the processor n

Storage
Devices
 Processor
• What is a machine cycle?
 Four operations of the CPU comprise a machine cycle

Step 1. Fetch
Obtain program instruction
or data item from memory

Memory

Step 2.
Step 4. Store Decode
Write result to memory Translate
instruction into
Processor
commands
ALU Control Unit
Step 3. Execute
Carry out command
Fetch – Execute Cycle
Fetch- Execute Cycle
• Step 1: Fetch instruction. The computer reads the next program instruction to be executed
and any necessary data into the processor.
 Step 2: Decode instruction. The instruction is decoded and passed to the appropriate
processor execution unit. Each execution unit plays a different role: The arithmetic/logic
unit performs all arithmetic operations.

The time it takes to perform the instruction phase (Steps 1 and 2) is called the
instruction time (I-time).

Step 3: Execute instruction. The hardware element(ALU), now freshly fed with an
instruction and data, carries out the instruction. This could involve making an arithmetic
computation or logical comparison.

Step 4: Store results. The results are stored in registers or memory.

The time it takes to complete the execution phase (Steps 3 and 4) is called the execution
time (E-time).
 Cont


After both phases have been completed for one instruction, they are performed again
for the second instruction, and so on. Completing the instruction phase followed by
the execution phase is called a machine cycle.
• Three kinds of busses linked between the CPU, primary storage and the other
devices in the computer system:
• Data bus
• Pass information in bi-directional.
• Address bus
• Transmits signals for locating a given address in primary storage, indicating where data should be
placed.
• Control bus
• Transmits signal specifying whether to read or write data to or from primary storage address, input
device or output device.
• The characteristics of the CPU and primary storage are very important in
determining a computer’s speed and capabilities
 The Arithmetic-Logic Unit and Control
Unit
• An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit is one of the core
components of all central processing units.
• The ALU performs the computer’s principal logical and arithmetic
operations.
• It adds, subtracts, multiples, and divides, determining whether a number is
positive, negative, or zero.
• ALU must be able to determine when one quantity is greater than
or less than another and when two quantities are equal.
• The control unit coordinates and controls the other parts of the
computer system.
• It reads a stored program, one instruction at a time and directs
other components of the computer system to perform the
program’s required tasks.
 Primary Storage
• Primary storage is a category of computer storage, often called main memory.
• Has three functions:
• Stores all or part of the program that is being executed.
• Stores the operating system programs that manage the operation of the computer.
• Holds data that the program is using.
• Data and program are placed in primary storage before processing, between
processing steps and after processing has ended prior to being returned to
secondary storage or released as output.
• Modern primary storage devices include:
• Random access memory (RAM)
• is used for short-term storage of data or program instructions. RAM is volatile.
Its contents will be lost when the computer’s electric supply is disrupted by a
power outage or when the computer turned off.
• Read-only memory (ROM)
• can only be read from. It cannot be written to. ROM chips come from the
manufacturer with programs already burned in, or stored. ROM is used in
general-purpose computers to store important or frequently used programs.
 Memory
• What is random access memory (RAM)?

Memory chips that can be

read from and written
to by processor
Most RAM is
Also called
volatile, it is lost
main memory
when computer’s
or primary
power is
storage
turned off

The more RAM a

computer has, the
faster it responds
 Memory
• How do program instructions transfer in and out of RAM?
RAM Step 1. When you start the computer, certain
operating system files are loaded into RAM from
the hard disk. The operating system displays the
user interface on the screen.

Step 2. When you start a Web browser, the

program’s instructions are loaded into RAM from
the hard disk. The Web browser window is
displayed on the screen.

Step 3. When you start a word processing

program, the program’s instructions are loaded
instructions interface
into RAM from the hard disk. The word
processing program, along with the Web Browser
Operating system Operating system
and certain operating system instructions are in
RAM. The word processing program window is
displayed on the screen.
RAM
instructions window
Step 4. When you quit a program, such as the
Web browser Web browser
Web browser, its program instructions are
removed from RAM. The Web browser is no
longer displayed on the screen.
instructions
program window
Web browser program Web browser
program
Word processing
instructions are window is no
Word processing
removed from RAM longer displayed on
desktop
 Memory characteristics and functions

Main memory is located physically close to the CPU, but not on the CPU chip itself.

It provides the CPU with a working storage area for program instructions and data.

It rapidly provides the data and instructions to the CPU.

Data in memory is stored in bits.

Usually bits are grouped together(8bits) to form what is called a byte which
represents a single character.
Storage capacities
 Memory and IS

Memory capacity will determine how effective an computer based information
systems(CBIS) is.

The specific applications of a CBIS determine the amount of memory required for a
computer system.

For example, a system that processes large volumes of data will require more
memory compared to a word processing application.
 Secondary storage

Compared with primary memory, secondary storage offers the following
advantages:
 nonvolatility,
 Greater capacity,
 and greater economy. On a cost-per-megabyte basis, most forms of secondary storage are
considerably less expensive than primary memory.

The selection of secondary storage media and devices requires understanding their
primary characteristics—access method, capacity, and portability.
 Access methods


Data and information access can be either sequential or direct.

Sequential access means that data must be accessed in the order in which it is stored.

Direct access means that data can be retrieved directly, without the need to pass by
other data in sequence.

With direct access, it is possible to go directly to and access the needed data
 Cont


As with other computer system components, the access methods, storage capacities,
and portability required of secondary storage media are determined by the
information system’s objectives.

In addition to cost and portability, organizations must address security issues to
allow only authorized people to access sensitive data and critical programs.
 Summary: Functional units of a computer
Input unit accepts Arithmetic and logic unit(ALU):
information: • Performs the desired
• Human operators, operations on the input
• Electromechanical devices information as determined
• Other computers by instructions in the memory

Memory
Arithmetic
Input

Instr1 & Logic

Instr2

Instr3

Data1
Output 
Data2 Control

I/O Processor
Stores
information: Control unit coordinates
Output unit sends various actions
results of processing: • Instructions,
• Data • Input,
• To a monitor display, • Output
• To a printer • Processing
What are the emerging technologies in Computer hardware?