Higher Level

Population Ecology
Ecology and Conservation
 Essential Idea
Dynamic biological processes impact population
density and population growth.

Nature of Science
Avoiding bias — a random number generator
helps to ensure population sampling is free from
bias.
 IB Understandings
► Sampling techniques are used to estimate population size.
► The exponential growth pattern occurs in an ideal,
unlimited environment.
► Population growth slows as a population reaches the
carrying capacity of the environment.
 IB Understandings
► The phases shown in the sigmoid curve can be explained by
relative rates of natality, mortality, immigration and
emigration.
► Limiting factors can be top down or bottom up.
 IB Applications
►Application: Evaluating the methods used to estimate the size of
commercial stock of marine resources.
►Application: Use of the capture-mark-release-recapture method
to estimate the population size of an animal species.
►Application: Discussion of the effect of natality, mortality,
immigration and emigration on population size.
 IB Applications
►Application: Analysis of the effect of population size, age
and reproductive status on sustainable fishing practices.
►Application: Bottom-up control of algal blooms by shortage
of nutrients and top-down control by herbivory.
 IB Skills
► Modelling the growth curve using a simple organism
such as yeast or species of Lemna.
Population

❓ Define
population

❓ Define
carrying
capacity
Sampling Techniques

Sampling techniques are

used to estimate population
size.

Scientists use random

number generators to
ensure that sampling is
random to avoid bias.
 Capture - Mark - Release - Recapture
❓ Outline the Capture - Release -
Mark - Recapture method of
sampling a motile animal
species.

1. A random sample of a
population is captured.
2. Captured individuals are
marked, and released.
3. A second random sample of
the population is captured.
4. The population is estimated
(using the formula on the
next slide).
 The Lincoln Index
The Lincoln index uses data collected from the capture-mark-release-
recapture method to estimate population size.

n1 = number of individuals in the first sample (marked)

n2 = number of individuals in the second sample
m = number of marked individuals in the second example
 The Lincoln Index Example
Question
An ecologist captured 350 ants. All of the ants were marked and released.
Two days later, 400 ants were captured. 150 of these ants had been marked.

n1 = 350
n2 = 400
m = 150

Estimated Population Size = 933 ants

 Natality, Mortality, Immigration and
Emigration
Four Factors affect the size of a population:
Natality (N) is the birth rate for a population
Mortality (M) is the death rate for a population
Immigration (I) is new individuals entering a population
Emigration (E) is individuals leaving a population
Change in population size = (N + I) - (M + E)

❓ Predict what happens to population size when natality and and

immigration are greater than mortality and emigration.

The population increases in size.

 Exponential Growth
An exponential growth pattern
occurs in an ideal environment.
This pattern is observed in an
environment with no competition
for resources.
Exponential population growth is
observed when a species
colonises a new region with few
limiting factors.
Natality greatly exceeds mortality.
 Carrying Capacity
Exponential population
growth cannot continue as
the population increases,
due to competition for
resources.

❓ Define carrying capacity.

❓ List five factors that

determine the carrying
capacity of an ecosystem.
 Sigmoid Population Curve
When a species enters a new
location, the population
typically produces a sigmoid
population growth curve.
Read the linked article.

❓ Outline the three

phases of sigmoid
population growth
 Sigmoid Population Curve
Plateau Phase:

Exponential Phase: Carrying capacity is

reached as natality
Begins with a lag phase as equals mortality due to
individuals adapt to the limiting factors (such as
ecosystem. food, predators, and
There is then an disease).
exponential increase in The population will
numbers, as natality fluctuate around the
greatly exceeds mortality. carrying capacity.
Mortality is low due to
abundant resources and
low competition. Transitional Phase:
Resources become limited due to competition
as the population continues to grow.
Mortality increases as natality decreases.
 Modeling Population Growth -
Duckweed
Duckweed is an aquatic plant that can be used to
model population growth.
► Add three plants to a cup, beaker, or container
of water
► Count the number of leaves every three days
► Plot the number of leaves on a graph

See the linked article to create ideal

conditions for population growth.
 Modeling Population Growth - Yeast
Baker’s Yeast can be used to model population
growth.
► Add a small sample of yeast to a weak sugar
solution.
► There are different methods for measuring
yeast population growth, including:
➢ Direct counting of yeast cells
➢ Turbidity of yeast suspension using a
colorimeter
► Plot the data on a graph over time
 Limiting Factors
Limiting Factors control the maximum growth rate of a
population.

Limiting factors include:

● Food and Water ● Environmental Change

● Space (storms, natural disasters)
● Availability of Mates ● Accumulation of Waste
● Disease ● Abiotic factors
● Climate

Limiting factors can be be top down or bottom up.

 Top Down and Bottom Up Limiting
Top Down Limiting Factors
Factors Bottom Up Limiting Factors
Top down factors are pressures applied Bottom up factors are resources (such
at higher trophic levels to control as nutrients) available to producers,
dynamics in an ecosystem. affecting the growth of producers.

The top predator, often a keystone

Population growth at higher
species, prevents overpopulation
trophic levels is impacted by the
of its prey.
availability of producers.
This has an impact on many
species within the ecosystem

Read the linked article on top down and bottom up control of

ecosystems.
 Top Down Limiting Factors - Wolves

The Wolves of
Yellowstone National
Park are a good
example of a top down
limiting factor.

The Yellowstone
ecosystem is more
biodiverse due to the
presence of wolves.
 Algal Blooms
An overabundance of nutrients
in water, primarily nitrogen
and phosphorus,starts a
process called eutrophication.

❓ Explain the process of

eutrophication in lakes

Algal blooms can be controlled

by bottom up control, or top
down control.
 Bottom Up Control of Algal Blooms
Algal blooms can be controlled
by reducing the concentration of
nutrients in waterways.
This prevents algal populations
from increasing.
This involves controlling use of
fertilizers, so that fewer
nutrients enter waterways.

❓ Outline why reducing

nutrients is an example
bottom up control.
 Top Down Control of Algal Blooms
In rivers and lakes, animals such as daphnia consume algae.
However, many fish consume daphnia, maintaining a low population of
daphnia.
A predator of the daphnia-consuming fish could be added to a river or
lake, decreasing the population of the daphnia consumers.
Daphnia would have fewer predators, and the daphnia population would
increase.
Increased populations of daphnia would eat more algae - preventing the
algae populations from forming an algal bloom.

❓ Outline why introducing daphnia-consuming fish is an example of top

down control
 Overfishing

Over 30% of fish stocks in the

ocean are overfished.
Read the linked article on
overfishing.
Science has a role in
estimating fish stocks, so that
we can move towards
sustainable methods of
fishing.
 Estimating Commercial Fish
Populations
The population of fish stocks can
be estimated by the following
methods:
► Capture-Mark-Release-
Recapture using the
Lincoln Index
► Echo Sounders
► Analysis of fish catch data
 Estimating Commercial Fish
Populations
► Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture using the Lincoln Index - can be
used in rivers and lakes, but ocean stocks are too large for this
method.
► Echo Sounders - use sound waves to estimate the size of shoals,
but do not identify species, or numbers of fish.
► Analysis of fish catch data - populations of fish can be estimated
from commercial fish catch data.
However, this requires fishers to land all fish caught, and not
dispose of bycatch (small fish and undesirable fish). International
cooperation is also required as many fish stocks are harvested from
international waters.
 Sustainable Fishing
Read the linked article on
sustainable fishing.

❓ Define sustainable
fishing.

Sustainable fishing uses

selective methods to
maximize fish capture
without causing fish
populations to decrease.
 Maximum Sustainable Yield
The maximum sustainable
yield is the largest catch
of fish that can be
sustained over time
without causing the fish
stocks to decrease.
 Maximum Sustainable Yield
Factors to be considered to
determine the maximum
sustainable yield include:
► Population Size
► Age
► Reproductive status
 Maximum Sustainable Yield - Population
Size
The maximum sustainable yield of
fish is half of the carrying capacity of
that fish.
Harvesting above this threshold will
lead to a decline in fish populations.
Harvesting below this threshold, will
lead to lower fish harvests. The fish population is
growing fastest at half
the carrying capacity
 Maximum Sustainable Yield - Age

If fish populations are growing, there will be

greater numbers of younger fish (due to high
natality and low mortality).
If fish populations are decreasing, there will be
greater numbers of older fish.
Maximum sustainable yields can be
maintained by harvesting older, larger fish
using nets with larger mesh sizes.
 Maximum Sustainable Yield - Reproductive
Status
Fish of reproductive age must remain within
fish populations to repopulate fish stocks.
Yearly closed seasons should be put in place to
allow fish populations to repopulate.
Exclusion zones should be enforced when fish
populations decrease.
Review
 Essential Idea
Dynamic biological processes impact population
density and population growth.

Nature of Science
Avoiding bias — a random number generator
helps to ensure population sampling is free from
bias.
 IB Understandings
► Sampling techniques are used to estimate population size.
► The exponential growth pattern occurs in an ideal,
unlimited environment.
► Population growth slows as a population reaches the
carrying capacity of the environment.
 IB Understandings
► The phases shown in the sigmoid curve can be explained by
relative rates of natality, mortality, immigration and
emigration.
► Limiting factors can be top down or bottom up.
 IB Applications
►Application: Evaluating the methods used to estimate the size of
commercial stock of marine resources.
►Application: Use of the capture-mark-release-recapture method
to estimate the population size of an animal species.
►Application: Discussion of the effect of natality, mortality,
immigration and emigration on population size.
 IB Applications
►Application: Analysis of the effect of population size, age
and reproductive status on sustainable fishing practices.
►Application: Bottom-up control of algal blooms by shortage
of nutrients and top-down control by herbivory.
 IB Skills
► Modelling the growth curve using a simple organism
such as yeast or species of Lemna.
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