Farming Systems and Organic Production

Module Title: Integrated Farming Systems
Unit: Farming Systems and Organic Production in Agriculture
Unit-Course Facilitator:
Dr. Eng. Adrien TURAMYENYIRIJURU (PhD)
E-mail: [email protected]
Phone no: (+250)788213807
Farming system – scope, importance and concept
Farming system?
An appropriate mix of farm enterprises and the means
available to the farmers to raise them for profitability.
It interacts adequately with environment without
dislocating the ecological and socio-economic balance on
one hand and attempt to meet the national goal on the other
hand.
 In its real sense it will help in lifting the economy of
agriculture and standard of living of the farmers of the
country as a whole.
Farming system – scope, importance and
concept
Farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and
sustained agricultural production to meet diverse requirements of farm livelihood
while preserving resource base and maintaining a high level of environment quality
(Lal and Miller 1990 ).
Farming system is a set of agro-economic activities that are interrelated and interact
with themselves in a particular agrarian setting. It is a mix of farm enterprises to which
farm families allocate its resources in order to efficiently utilize the existing enterprises
for increasing the productivity and profitability of the farm. These farm enterprises are
crop, livestock, aquaculture, agroforestry and agri-horticulture (Sharma et al 1991).
Farming system is a mix of farm enterprises such as crop, livestock, aquaculture,
agroforestry and fruit crops to which farm family allocates its resources in order to
efficiently manage the existing environment for the attainment of the family goal
(Pandey et al., 1992 ).
 Farming system represents an appropriate combination of farm enterprises (cropping

systems, horticulture, livestock, fishery, forestry, poultry) and the means available to
the farmer to raise them for profitability. It interacts adequately with environment
without dislocating the ecological and socioeconomic balance on one hand and
attempts to meet the national goals on the other hand (Jayanthi et al., 2002).
Farming system is a decision making unit comprising the farm household,
cropping and livestock system that transform land, capital and labour into useful
products that can be consumed or sold (Fresco andWestphal,1988)
“Farming system” → set of agricultural activities organized while

preserving land productivity, environmental quality & maintaining desirable
level of biological diversity & ecological stability (Lal and Millar, 1990)
Specialized vs Integrated Farming system

• Specialized Farming System (SFS)
Specialization involves the intensification of the agricultural activity aimed at maximization of the
production/area/time.
This involves improvement of operational efficiency and speed of operation/execution

operation/execution at each step.
The specialized farming system is focused on single cropping system or sequence of farming
enterprise like animal breeding, dairying so as to achieve the highest degree of precision
management with minimal diversion of resources/attention to diverse crops or enterprises.
• Integrated Farming System (IFS)
IFS, a component of FSR (Farming System research), introduces a
change in the farming techniques for maximum production in the
cropping pattern and takes care of optimal utilization of resources.
The farm wastes are better recycled for productive purposes in the
IFS. Unlike the SFS, IFS’s activity is focused round a few selected,
interdependent, interrelated and often interlinking production
systems based on a few crops, animals and related subsidiary
professions.
IFS envisage harnessing the complementarities and synergies among
different agricultural sub-systems/enterprises and augmenting the
total productivity, sustainability and gainful employment.
Key principles of FS
• Cyclic
• Rational
• Ecologically sustainable
Cyclic
• The farming system is essentially cyclic (organic resources – livestock
– land – crops).
• Therefore, management decisions livestock -land -crops related to
one component may affect the others.
Organic
Residues
Crops
Livestock
Land
Rational
• Using crop residues more rationally is an important route out of poverty.
• For resource-poor farmers, the correct management of crop residues, together

with an optimal allocation of scarce resources, leads to sustainable production.
Ecological sustainable
• Combining ecological sustainability and economic viability, the integrated

livestock-farming system maintains and improves agricultural productivity while
also reducing negative environmental impacts.
• Factors influencing Integration of Farm Enterprises
• Soil features
• Climatic features of the selected area.
• Availability of the resources, land, labor & Capital.
• Present level of utilization of resources.
• Economics of proposed integrated farming system.
• Managerial skills of farmer.

concept
Benefits or Advantages of Integrated Farming System
• Productivity & Profitability
• Potentiality or sustainability
• Balanced food
• Adoption of new technology
• Solving fodder crises
• Solving fuel and timber crises
• Environmental safety
• Recycling
• Income round the year
• Employment generation
• Agro-industries diversification
• Increasing Input efficiency
Farming System Concept
• A farm is a system in that it has INPUTS, PROCESSES and OUTPUTS
• Depending on the type of farming e.g. arable/pastoral, commercial/subsistence,

the type and amount of inputs, processes and outputs will vary.
• Income through arable farming alone is insufficient for bulk of the marginal
farmers.
• The other activities such as dairying, poultry, sericulture, apiculture, fisheries etc.
assume critical importance in supplementing their farm income.
Time and space concept
• Time concept relates to increasing crop intensification in situation
where there is no constraint for inputs.
• In rain fed areas where there is no possibility of increasing the
intensity of cropping, the other modern concept (space concept) can
be applied.
• In space concept, crops are arranged in tier system combining two or
more crops with varying field duration as intercrops by suitably
modifying the planting method.
Rationale of IFS
• Income through arable cropping alone is insufficient for bulk of the marginal
farmers.
• Other activities such as dairy, poultry, fish culture, sericulture, bio-gas
production, edible mushroom cultivation, agro-forestry and agri-
horticulture, etc., assumes critical importance in supplementing farm
income.
• It should fit well with farm level infrastructure and ensures full utilization of
by-products.
• Integrated farming system is only the answer to the problem of increasing
food production for increasing income and for improving the nutrition of
small scale farmers with limited resources.
concept
Specific Objectives of IFS
• To identify existing farming systems in specific areas and assess their relative
viability.
• To formulate farming system model involving main and allied enterprises for
different farming situations.
• To ensure optional utilization and conservation of available resources and
effective recycling of farm residues within system and
• To maintain sustainable production system without damaging resources &
environment
Goals of IFS
• Provide a steady (balanced) and stable income

rejuvenation/amelioration of the system’s productivity and
• Achieve agro-ecological equilibrium through the reduction in the build-

up of pests and diseases, through natural cropping system management
and the reduction in the use of chemicals (inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides).
Assignment No 1
• Discuss the types, advantages and disadvantages of FS
existing in Rwanda.
Why Farming System?
The current World is stressed by:
• Population increase
• Reduction and degradation of land area
• Over use of chemicals
• Soil health deterioration
• Huge Waste and
• Over use of natural resources (Soil, water and vegetation)
Scope of FS
• The rising cost of energy
• The low profit margins of conventional practices
• Development of new practices that are seen as viable options
• Increasing environmental awareness among consumers, producers
and regulators
• New and stronger markets for alternatively grown and processed farm
products
• No further scope for horizontal expansion of land for cultivation
Scope of FS
• Farming enterprises include more alternatives such as crop, livestock,
poultry, fish, sericulture etc.
• A combination of one or more enterprises with cropping when carefully

chosen, planned and executed gives greater dividends than a single
enterprise, especially for small and marginal farmers.
• Farm as a unit is to be considered and planned for effective integration

of other enterprises to be combined with crop production activity.
Three working Hypotheses/Principles of Farming Systems
1. There is always a reason why farming is carried out in one way
rather than another. The reason is often, but not always, an
economic one
2. Change in the environment of the system generally produces
divergences between the actual farming systems employed and the
optimum solution given for the farmers possibilities and
preferences
3. Farmers tend to adopt their farming to the changing circumstances,
provided the change is satisfying in terms of additional benefit.
Objectives of sustainable FS
• Increasing the total farm income as a whole
• Improving the standard of living of the farmer
• Effective recycling of farm products and by-products
• Reduce the external input usage on the farm
• Sustaining the productivity levels and soil health
• Increasing the employment opportunities
• Regular cash flow throughout the year
Advantages of Sustainable Farming System
• Effective and efficient utilization of resources available
• Relies mainly on resources within the agro-ecosystem by replacing external
inputs
• Manages pests, diseases, and weeds instead of controlling
• Shifts from nutrient management to recycling of nutrients
• Preserves and rebuilds soil fertility, prevents soil erosion, and maintains the soil's
ecological health
• Has minimal negative effects on the environment and release no toxic or
damaging substances to the system
• Uses Judiciously water in a way that allows recharge of aquifers & meeting water
needs of environment and people
• Incorporates the idea of long term sustainability into overall agro-ecosystem
COMPONENTS OF FARMING SYSTEM
1. Crops, livestock, and trees are the major components of any IFS.
2.Crop may have sub-system like monocrop, mixed/intercrop, multi-tier

crops of cereals, legumes (pulses), oilseeds, forage etc.
3. Livestock components may be milk cow, goat, sheep, poultry, bees,

etc.
4. Tree components may include timber, fuel, fodder and fruit trees.
COMPONENTS OF FARMING SYSTEM
• The various enterprises that could be included in the farming system are crops,
dairy, poultry, goat/sheep rearing, fishery, sericulture, agroforestry, horticulture,
mushroom cultivation etc.
• Thus it deals with whole farm approach to minimize risk and to increase the
production and profit for better utilization of wastes and residues.
• It may be possible to reach the same level of yield with proportionately less inputs
in the integrated farming and the yield would be more sustainable because the
waste of one enterprise becomes the input for another, leaving almost no waste to
pollute the environment or to degrade the resource base.
• The knowledge of linkages and complementaries will help to develop farming
system (integrated farming) in which the waste of one enterprise is more
efficiently used as input in another within the system.
Classification of Farming systems
Generally there are 3 different farming situations based on

irrigability and irrigation facilities availability:
• i. Rainfed (Dry) farming system
• ii. Irrigated (garden land) farming system and
• iii. Wetland farming system.

Examples of Enterprise Linkages (Models) in IFS
Wetland ecosystem
• Crop + Fish + Poultry
• Crop + Fish + Duck
• Crop + Fish + Pigeon
• Crop + Fish + Poultry/pigeon + mushroom
• Crop + Fish +Mushroom
• Crop + Fish + Pig + Mushroom
• Crop + Fish + Goat
Garden land ecosystem
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Sericulture
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Fishery
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Silvipasture
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Silviculture + Apiculture.
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Mushroom + Silviculture
Dry land ecosystem
• Crop + Goat
• Crop + Goat + Agroforestry
• Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture
• Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture + Farm pond
• Crop + Goat + Rabbit
Factors influencing the selection and size of components in Farming Systems
• Climatic conditions - Rainfall, temperature, solar radiation, wind, humidity, etc.
• Soil type
• Farmers preferences
• Size of the Farm
• Knowledge, skills and technology
• Storage, transport and marketing
• Resource mobilizing power of the farmer
• Credit facilities available
• Socio-economic conditions
• Customs, sentiments and believe
CLASSIFICATION OF FARMING
SYSTEMS
Major Farming Systems are:
No Criterion Type of FS
1 Climate Tropical, Temperate, Mediterranean
2 Stage of development Shifting cultivation, Arable farming, Ranching
3 Component(s) Crop based, Dairy based, Poultry based Pig based (Piggery), Fish
based, etc. or mixed-Specialized, diversified/ Integrated
4 Mode of ownership Peasant Farming, Joint Farming, Co-operative Farming, State

Farming
5 Level of profitability Subsistence, Commercial/ Market Oriented
6 Irrigability and Irrigation Irrigated (including Irrigated Garden Land), , Non Irrigated-Wet
facilities land, Dry land (Rainfed),
7 Degree of mechanization Mechanized, Semi-Mechanized, Non Mechanized
8 Area holding/ Degree of soil Intensive, Extensive
exploitation
9 Inputs used Organic, Inorganic /Conventional
1. Arable farming: In this system the land is tilled with a view to raise
crops, maintain a large population of human being and animals per unit
as compared to pastoral farming.
2. Ranch farming: A ranch differs from other type of crop and livestock
farming in that the livestock grazes the natural vegetation. Ranch land
is not utilized by tilling or raising crops.
Depending upon farming conditions, the arable farming may be classified on
the basis of:
a) Land utilization, crop, livestock raising, mixed farming and farming practices
followed.
b) Economics and social functioning, private, state or group way of functioning.
In this way Arable farming can be classified into two main groups:
1. Types of farming
• It refers to the production pattern of farm enterprises as determined by the
physical condition of the farm and resources of the farmer.
• It further shows how crop and livestock enterprises and farming practices are
distributed geographically among farms and localities.
• In short it is only based on land utilization and farming practices followed.
2. System of Farming
• It is only based on type of ownership of land and method of
agriculture used in operating the land.
• In this way, it refers to the farming methods and type of ownership of
resources that are brought into effect under single or joint
management.
• It also shows how products and expenses are shared under joint
cultivation.
• E.g. peasant, Co-operative, state, capitalistic and collective farming.
Types of farming based on source of income
1. Diversified Farming or General Farming
• A farm on which no single product or source of income equals as much

as 50% of the total receipt is called a diversified general farm.
• On such farm the farmer depends on several sources of income, e.g.

growing of several crop and enterprises such as cash crops, grain crops,
vegetable crops, fruit crops, milch cattle raising, poultry raising etc.
Advantages of diversified farming
1. Better use of land, labour & capital: batter use of land through
adoption of crop rotations, steady employment of farm labours & more
profitable use of equipment of farm.
2. Proper utilization of by products: Ex. Grain (and legumes) & dairy
farming naturally go together for mutual benefit.
3. Business risk is reduced due to crop failure or unfavourable market
price.
4. Regular and quicker returns are obtained from various enterprises.
Disadvantage of diversified farming
1. Marketing is inefficient unless the producers arranged for the sale of
their produce on co-operative basis.
2. Because of varied jobs in diversified farming, a farmer can effectively
supervise only limited number of works.
3. Better equipping the farm is not possible because it is not
economical to have expensive implements & machinery for each
enterprise.
4. There are chances for some of the leaks in farm business, some leaks
may remain undetected due to diversity of operations.
2. Specialized farming
• According to Farm Management authorities like Adams and others a
specialized farm is one on which 50% or more receipts are derived
from one source.
• The U. S. Census defines specialized as a system of production
receiving 50% or more of the income from a single source. Income is
sale + produced used.
• According to above definitions a farm on which 50% or more of the
receipt are from groundnut for example would be classified as
groundnut farm.
Advantage of specialized farming
1. Better use of land: It is more profitable to grow a crop on a land best suited to it
e.g. Paddy cultivation on swampy land.
2. Better Marketing: Specialization facilitates better assembling, grading,
processing, storing, transporting, and financing of the produce.
3. Better Management: the fewer enterprises on the farm are liable to be less
neglected and sources of wastage can easily be detected.
4. Less equipment and labour are needed : A fruit farmer needs only special
machinery and comparatively less labour for raising the fruit crops
5. Costly and efficient machinery can be kept: A wheat harvester & combine can be
maintained in a highly specialized wheat farm.
6. Efficiency and skill are increased: Specialization allows a man to be more efficient
and expert at doing a few things
Disadvantages of specialized farming
1. There is a greater risk: Failure of crop and market together may ruin the
farmer.
2. Productive resources: Land, labour and capital are not fully utilized.
3. Fertility of soil can not be maintained for lack of suitable crop rotations.
4. By product of the farm can not be fully utilized for lack of sufficient
livestock on the farm.
5. Farm returns in cash are not generally received more than once a year.
6. General knowledge of farm enterprises becomes limited.
3. Mixed farming
• Mixed farming is a type of farming under which crop production is combined with
livestock raising.
Advantages of mixed farming
1. Milch cattle provide draught animals for crop production and rural transport.
2. It helps in maintains of soil fertility.
3. It tends to give balanced labour load through out year for the farmer and his family.
4. It permits proper use of the farm by-products.
5. It provides greater chances for intensive cultivation
6. It offers higher returns on farm business
In many cases, crop-dairy type of mixed farming is followed because it often more economical use of
land, labour and capital & permit safest way to withstand adverse weather conditions.
Type of farming based on Irrigation facility
1. Irrigated farming
• It is most successful valuable and desirable kind of farming, it requires judicious and
sound cropping scheme and efficient management.
Advantages
b. Assured crop food supply and profit for labour and money invested.
c. Can carry heavier density of population.
d. More production and greater profile /unit area.
e. Provides sufficient work through the year for farmer, his family, labourers and machinery.
f. Possible to grow a variety of crops.
g. Continuous and regular income through out the year.
h. Economical use of land and inputs like manures.
2. Dry farming/ Rainfed farming
• It is fully dependent upon the rainfall.
• Besides to some humid and sub-humid regions, even arid (Rainfall is less than 400
mm) and Semi-arid (Rainfall is 400 to 700 mm) regions fall under this category.
• In dry farming area, the rainfall pattern may mostly prevail scanty, erratic,
therefore farmers struggle for livelihood.
• The major farm management problem in these areas where crops entirely
dependent upon rainfall, is the conservation of soil moisture.
Dry farming involves the adoption of the following practices for better
yield:
1. Timely preparation of land to bring a condition favourable for
receiving and conserving the available moisture.
2. Timely and proper interculturing during the growth of the crops
3. Improving the water holding capacity of the soil by application of
organic manure.
4. This organic manure adds plant nutrients and improves the soil
structure also.
5. Use of such implements which are more convenient to dry land.
Major constraints and problems in rainfed areas are:
1. Uncertain, erratic and uneven distribution of rainfall
2. Degradation of forests and natural tree cover
3. Low soil fertility and soil depth
4. Loss of OM and physical degradation
5. Nutrients depletion and chemical degradation
6. Shortage of drinking water and limited crop irrigation schemes
7. Cultivation of marginal lands due to population and animal pressure
8. Lack of infrastructure and facilities
9. Shortage of fuel wood and fodder
10. Continuance of traditional varieties and management practices
11. Improper management of community lands/ Poor land use
Types of farming according to area of holding
1. Intensive farming
• The area of holding is comparatively small.
• Hence in intensive farming can devote proper attention to each and every details
of farm management work & can obtain maximum productive capacity.
• Maximum profit can derived from a small area by growing crops in each season
without break.
• The chief requirements for successful farming are ample irrigation supply & ready
market for all the produce.
• It has all the advantage of irrigated farming.
• The farming is no doubt expensive and sufficient capital should be ready available.
• Manual labour is largely employed & heavy manuring is normally practiced.
2. Extensive farming
• The holding is comparatively large & ordinarily it is dry farmed.
• Mostly it is a large scale farming, yields are low or only moderate &
often uncertain.
• Manuring is much limited.
• Purchased manures are seldom /rarely used to keep down expenses.
• Human labour kept down & labour saving implements & appliances
are used.
• For profit from farming, the farmer depends upon the total produce
from a large area than a more yield from a small area.
SYSTEMS OF FARMING
1. Peasant farming
• This system of farming refers to the type of organization in which an individual
cultivator is the owner, manager, and organizer of his farm.
• He makes decision and plans for his farm depending upon his resources which
are generally insufficient in comparison to other system of farming.
• The biggest advantage of this system is farmer himself is the owner and takes all
decisions freely.
• A general weakness is that the resources with the farmer are less as compared
to other systems.
• Another weakness is law of inheritance. So holding goes reducing due to
fragmentation.
2. Tenant farming
• In tenant farming owner of land and land operator (Farmer) are
always separate to each other.
• Land operator cultivates the land on hired basis or partnership basis.
• In partnership basis operator gives some part of produce to the land
owner.
• It is as good as peasant type of farming but land is acquired on hired
basis for reasonable time or for one year,
• If tenant cultivates the land for longer period, he can become owner
of the land and initial land owner loses his land.
3. State farming
• It is managed by the government.
• Here, the operation and management is done by government officials.
• Supervision is done by the farm manager appointed by the government.
• All the labourers are hired on daily or monthly basis and they have no right
in deciding the farm policy.
• Such farms are not more paying due to lack of incentives.
• State farm and university farms are the examples.
• In such farms, resources are fully available but some times they are not
available in time and utilized fully due to limitations in power with farm
manager.
4. Capitalistic farming or Estate farming
• The management and ownership of such farm is under rich persons or capitalistic.
• The size of such farm is sufficiently large and the management is also quite
efficient.
• These farms are owned by individuals or group of individuals or share holders.
• Resources are plenty, and latest technology is used and hence they are efficient.
• Sugar factories’ farm, coffee, and tea plantations are common examples.
• Management is paid and general policies are decided by the managing body.
• The advantages of such farming are good supervision, strong organization set up,
sufficient resources etc.
• Its weakness is that it creates socio-economic imbalances and the actual cultivator
is not the owner of the farm.
5. Collective farming
• The name collective farming implies the collective management of land wherein
large number of farm families in the same village pool their resources e. g. land,
livestock, machineries etc.
• There is a general body having the highest power to manage the farms.
• Allocated resources do not belong to any farmer but to the collective society.
• If any farmer wants to dissociate from it, he can do so, but he can not go with his
resources. Money in form of his share will be given to him.
• The disadvantage of this system is the individual farmer has no voice in
management.
• Farming is done generally on large scale and therefore, is mostly mechanized.
• This system is common in communistic countries like Russia.
6. Co-operative farming
• It means a system of farming under which all agricultural operation or
part of them is carried out on jointly by the farmers on a volunteer
basis, each farmer retaining right in his own land.
• The farmers would pool their land, labour and capital.
• The land would be treated as one unit and cultivated jointly under the
direction of an elected management.
• A part of the profit would be distributed in proportion to the land
contributed by each farmer and the rest of the profit would be
distributed to the wages earned by each farmer.
Models of Integrated Farming System
Steps involved in the preparation of a model of Integrated Farming System to a specific
situation
1. Assessment of available resources
2. Identifying the existing cropping system
3. Identifying component(s) to be integrated
4. Fixing the size of the individual components
5. Working out the requirement of the components
6. Modifying the existing cropping system to suit the requirements of the components
integrated
7. Working out the economics of individual components and for the IF system as a whole
8. Identifying constraint and suggesting remedy measures/modifications for technical
feasibility, economic viability and practical utility.
Wetland Integrated Farming System
• Cropping in low land (Wetland) is considered to be less risky due to abundant availability
of water.
• In addition, most of the low land soils are heavy type of soils, which are fairly fertile soil.
• Mostly rice is the principle crop in low lands.
• Crops like Banana, Sugarcane and Coconut are also grown in this ecosystem.
• Diversified farming (and IFS) can be adopted in the low lands with the components like
Fish, Poultry, Duck and Mushroom.
• The possible IFS that can be practised using these components are:
Example:
a) Rice + Fish + Azolla
b) Rice + Fish + Poultry / Duck
c) Rice + Fish + Poultry/ Duck + Mushroom
Irrigated upland
• The possibility of having a viable integrated farming system in irrigated
uplands is possible.
• The control and management of available resources in more effective
manner paves way to integrate two or more components with cropping.
• The choice of components is many in irrigated upland compared to
lowlands and rainfed lands.
• Components like Dairy, Poultry, Goat, Sheep, Piggery, Sericulture,
Mushroom, Pigeon, Rabbit, etc. can be easily integrated in a n irrigated
upland farm.
• In addition perennial trees, fodder and multipurpose farm forestry trees
can be grown along the borders of the fields and boundary of the farm.
Special Features of Irrigated Upland
1. Wide range of crops and varieties can be grown
2. Wide range of components or faming systems can be integrated
3. Effective resource utilization and management is possible due to controlled irrigation system
The following are some of the examples of Integrated Farming System for irrigated uplands
1. Crop + Dairy + Biogas unit
2. Crop + Poultry + Biogas unit
3. Crop + Sheep / Goat rearing + Biogas unit
4. Crop + Sericulture
5. Crop + Piggery
6. Crop + Sericulture + Piggery + Biogas unit
7. Crop + Dairy + Biogas unit + Homestead garden
8. Crop + Dairy + Biogas unit + Vermicompost
IFS model under irrigated upland (garden land) situation/ Example
1. Under garden land situation, dairy and bio-gas were integrated in
1.00 hectare area.
2. The dairy unit comprised of 3 graded jersy cross breed milk animals
with two calves.
3. For effective recycling of farm and animal waste, a bio-gas unit of 2
cubic metre capacity was installed.
4. The results of the study revealed that the entire system produced a
net income of Rs/ Indian rupee 20, 702 per hectare per year.
Dry land ecosystem
The dry land ecosystem is characterized by:
1. Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall
2. Poor and marginal soils
3. Low cropping intensity
4.Limited crop diversification
5. Low value crops
6. Poor resource mobilizing power of farmers
• The agriculture in dry lands is seasonal.
• The cropping season is restricted to 4-5 months and people remain without
employment for rest of the year.
• Diversification of cropping by integrating with components like livestock (Sheep/Goat
rearing), silviculture, horticulture tree crops and pastures would improve the
standard of living and employment opportunities of the dry land farmers.
• Integrated farming system is a boon/ advantage to dry land farmers.
• When compatible components/ allied activities/ associated enterprises are suitably
combined, farming in dry lands becomes less risky and remunerative.
• IFS on a watershed approach are the best way of alternative agriculture in dry land
areas.
• The following components are identified as appropriate to dry land situations: Goat /
Sheep rearing, Silviculture, Agroforestry, Farm Forestry, Horticultural tree crops.
Possible combinations are:
 Crop + Silvopasture + Goat / Sheep rearing
 Crop + Silviculture + Hort. Fruit trees
 Crop + agroforestry + goat + farm pond
 Crop + Silvopasture + Goat + pigeon + farm pond
 Crop + Silvopasture + Buffalo + farm pond
Introduction, Definition, Concept, Importance, Advantages and
Disadvantages, Objectives, Essential Characteristics of Organic Farming
Introduction
• Green revolution technologies such as greater use of synthetic agro-chemicals like

fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient responsive, high-yielding varieties of
crops, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc… has boosted the production
output in most of cases.
• Without proper choice and continues use of these high energy inputs is leading to
decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of
soil health and environments.
Introduction, Definition, Concept, Importance, Advantages
and Disadvantages, Objectives, Essential Characteristics of
Organic Farming
The most unfortunate impact of Green Revaluation Technology (GRT) on Agriculture is as follows:
1. Change in soil reaction
2. Development of nutrient imbalance /deficiencies
3. Damage the soil flora and fauna
4. Reduce the earth worm activity
5. Reduction in soil humus / organic matter
6. Change in atmospheric composition
7. Reduction in productivity
8. Reduction in quality of the produce
9. Destruction of soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity
10. Breeding more powerful and resistant pests and diseases
Organic Farming
• All these problems of GRT lead to not only reduction in productivity but also
deterioration of soil health as well as natural ecosystem.
• Moreover, today the rural economy is now facing a challenge of over dependence
on synthetic inputs and day by day there is change in price of these inputs.
• Further, Agriculture will face the market competition due to globalization of trade
as per World Trade Organization (WTO).
• Thus apart from quantity, quality will be the important factor. Agriculture gave
birth to various new concepts of farming such as organic farming.
• The essential concept of these practices is “Give back to nature”, where the
philosophy is to feed the soil rather than the crop to maintain the soil health.
• Therefore, for sustaining healthy ecosystem, there is need for adoption of an
alternatives farming system like organic farming.
Organic Farming
Definition of organic farming
• Many scientists at different levels have elaborated the concept of organic
farming; the important descriptions are as follows;
• Lampkin (1990) Organic farming is a production system which avoids or largely
excludes the use of synthetic compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth
regulators and livestock feed additives.
• Koferi (1992) (Korean organic farming environment Research Institute) It is the
farming method by which we never use compound chemical fertilizers,
agricultural chemicals, pesticides, growth hormones and uses natural sources
such as organic matters, minerals, and microbes.
Organic Farming
• According to national organic standards board of the U.S. defines organic
farming as an ecological production management system that promotes
and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity.
• Organic farming refers to organically grown crops which are not exposed
to any chemicals right from the stage of seed treatments to the final post
harvest handling and processing (Pathak & Ram, 2003).
• Organic farming relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures,
legumes, green manures, off-farming organic wastes, agricultural
cultivation, mineral bearing rocks and aspect of biological pest control to
maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant nutrients and also to
control insects, weeds and other pests (Lampkins-1990).
Organic Farming
• Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains health of soil,
ecosystem and people, by relying on ecological process, biodiversity
and natural cycles and adapted to local conditions than use of inputs
with adverse effects .
• Ecological production system that promotes and enhances
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity by adopting
management practices that restores, maintains and enhances
ecological harmony as well as minimized use of off-farm inputs.
Organic Farming
• organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which
promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health (including
biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity).
• It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the
use of on-farm inputs.
• This is accomplished by using, agronomic, biological, and mechanical
methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials to fulfill specific
function within the system.
Organic Farming
Concept of organic farming
• It is not a solitary (single) practice, works in a module (components) of
practices having a combined effect.
• Any practice, that improves soil fertility, eco-balance ( in agriculture)
and natural cycles
• The term “organic”- derived from “organism”. Organic agriculture
promotes the activity of organisms ( biological)
• Ecological harmony and natural cycles are strengthened to restore,
maintain and enhance the natural processes – through which nutrients
are made available & pests are controlled.
Disadvantages, Objectives, Essential Characteristics of Organic
Farming
The basic concepts behind organic farming are:
1. Organic farming endorses the concept that the soil, plant, animals and
human beings are linked.
2. In philosophical terms organic farming means “farming in spirit/ essence of
organic relationship”.
3. In this system everything is connected with everything else.
4. It concentrates on building up the biological fertility of the soil so that the
crops take the nutrients they need from steady turnover within the soil nutrients
produced in this way and are released in harmony with the need of the plants.
Disadvantages, Objectives, Essential Characteristics of Organic
Farming
4. Control of pests, diseases and weeds is achieved largely by the development of
an ecological balance within the system and by the use of bio-pesticides and
various cultural techniques such as crop rotation, mixed cropping and cultivation.
5. Organic farmers recycle all wastes and manures within a farm, but the export
of the products from the farm results in a steady drain of nutrients.
6. Enhancement of the environment in such a way that wild life flourishes.
N.B. In a situation where conservation of energy and resources is considered to
be important, community or country would make every effort to recycles to all
urban and industrial wastes back to agriculture and thus the system would be
requiring only a small inputs of new resources to “Top Up” soil fertility.
Disadvantages, Objectives, Essential Characteristics of Organic Farming
Importance of Organic Farming
• The agriculture today in the country is hampered by erosion of natural resources viz., land, water,
biodiversity, fast declining soil fertility and use efficiency of inputs, such as water, fertilizer and
energy.
• Demographic pressure accelerates the former and the faulty agronomic practices account for the
latter problems.
• The modern agriculture with its potential takes the country out of the food trap and to reach an era
of self sufficiency in food grain production.
• The present day for self sufficiency in food production may not last longer unless we develop a
sustainable agricultural system which maintains and /or improves soil fertility and productivity
with greater acceptance of biological principles so as to assure adequate/more food production
in future.
• Besides plants are more prone to pest and diseases in intensive agriculture, use of chemicals can
have residues on the produce, in the soil and in ground water.
• With more of purchased inputs, cost of production is also mounting up.
Disadvantages, Objectives, Essential Characteristics of
Organic Farming
Organic farming practices :
• that reduces the pressure on land, water and bio-diversity without adverse effects
on agricultural production and nutritive value of food commodities,
• judicious use of organic manure, viz. farm yard manure, compost, crop residues,
Vermicompost etc. integrated is an efficient nutrient management practices,
cropping systems, conjunctive use of rain, tank and under ground water,
integrated pest management and conservation of genetic resources.
• Among them, soil fertility is give top attention due to its dynamic action with
various physical, chemical and biological properties.
• Besides this, following advantages derived from organic farming:
Advantages of organic farming
In General:
1. Organic manures produce optimal conditions in the soil for high yields and good quality
crops.
2. They supply all the nutrients required by the plant (NPK, secondary and micronutrients).
3. They improve plant growth and physiological activities of plants.
4. They improve the soil physical properties such as granulation and tilth, giving good
aeration, easy root penetration and improved water holding capacity.
.The fibrous portion of the organic matter with its high carbon content promotes soil
aggregation to improve the permeability and aeration of clay soils while its ability to
absorb moisture helps in the granulation of sandy soils and improves their water holding
capacity. The carbon in the organic matter is the source of energy for microbes which
helps in aggregation.
5. They improve the soil chemical properties such as supply and retention of soil nutrients
and promote favourable chemical reactions.
6. They reduce the need for purchased inputs.
7. Most of the organic manures are wastes or by-products which on accumulation may lead to
pollution. By way of utilizing them for organic farming, pollution is minimized.
8. Organic fertilizers are considered as complete plant food. Organic matter restores the pH of the
soil which may become acidic due to continuous application of chemical fertilizers.
9. Organically grown crops are believed to provide healthier and nutritionally superior food for man
and animals than those grown with commercial fertilizers.
10. Organically grown plants are more resistant to disease and insects and hence only a few chemical
sprays or other protective treatments are required.
11. There is an increasing consumer demand for agricultural produces which are free of toxic
chemical residues. In developed countries, consumers are willing to pay more for organic foods.
12. Organic farming helps to avoid chain reaction in the environment from chemical sprays.
13. Organic farming helps to prevent environmental degradation and can be used to regenerate
degraded areas.
14. Since the basic aim is diversification of crops, much more secure income can be obtained than
to rely on only one crop or enterprise.
• Soil fertility, soil fauna and micro flora enhancement– in harmony with ecosystem
• No deleterious effects on human health, animal health & crop growth
• Negative impact on natural predators, microbial population avoided
• Loss of nutrients thro’ volatilisation & leaching reduced and nutrient use efficiencies
improved- by better match between availability and demand for crop nutrients
• Pollution at various levels ( direct & non-point) reduced
• Regeneration of soil to its original dynamic living status- due to good integration
between chemical, physical and biological components
• Better moisture conservation, reduced erosion and improves WUE
• In long run, cost effective- leading to yield & economic sustainability
• Eco-system regains its self – supportive and self managing status
• Pollution free food and water- improved health
Disadvantages/ Limitations of organic farming.
1. Small holding: The average size of an operational holding is small and further decreasing gradually due to
population pressure.
2. Poor infrastructure facilities: i.e. lack of sufficient soil testing laboratories.
3. Lack of technological knowledge, lack of knowledge for use of bio-fertilizers, bio-pesticides, bio-control, IPM and
INM etc.
4. Organic farming takes at least four years for a farmer to free his land completely stopping the use of chemical as
nutrients & crop savers.
5. The neighbouring farmers do not well co-operate regarding use of fertilizer, pesticides, weedicides etc.
6. Decrease in production of high yielding crops like rice, wheat which needs high fertility status to get potential yield.
7. The competitive uses of organic materials such as dung-cakes for domestic cook fuel in villages and bagasse as fuel
in sugar factories & villages.
8. Wheat & rice straws are sometimes disposed by burning, instead of return to the soil.
9. Dung, slurry & pig manure and other waste used directly in the field (without compositing), which damage the crop
& pollute the ground water.
Disadvantages/ Limitations of organic farming
10. Most of organic material is bulky in nature, hence very difficult to store, carry and use.
11. Sewage, sludge contains pathogens and, some of them survive more than six months, which may hazard
the human life and prove fatal for the animal .
12. City garbage contains un-decomposed materials such as metal, plastic, glass, stones, needles etc. which
causes many problems,
13. Bio control agents are available only for few selected insect pests.
14. Complicated organic certification process and also high cost of certification.
15. High price expectations, quality restrictions, lack of certification & marketing net work are the major
problems for organic producers.
16. Major multinational companies are not interested in bio pesticides, also dealer’s interest in chemical
pesticides.
17. Dramatic & sudden yield increase is not possible in short time varying scope in different situations –
climatic limitations, differences in resource base and resource development. Uniform practices cannot be
developed & recommended for all the situations.
Need for Organic Farming
• Increase in population make compulsion to stabilize agricultural production,

but, to increase it further, only through sustainable manner.
• Natural balance needs to be maintained at all cost for existence of life and
property.
• Synthetic Agrochemicals in use and the ones which are produced from fossil
fuel are not renewable, are diminishing in availability and becoming costly.
• It may also cost heavily on any country foreign exchange in future.

Goal & Objectives of Organic Farming
•The goal of OF is to create an integrated, environmentally sound, safe and

economically sustainable agriculture production system.
•The objectives of organic agriculture have been expressed in the standard
document of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement
(IFOAM) as follows:
1. To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity.
2. To work with natural systems rather than seeking to dominate them.
3. To encourage and enhance the biological cycles within farming system involving
microorganisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals.
4. To maintain and increase the long term fertility of soils.
5. To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in locally organized agricultural
systems.
Objectives of Organic Farming
6. To work as much as possible, within a closed system with regard to
organic matter and nutrient elements.
7. To given all livestock, conditions of life that allow them to perform all
aspects of their innate behaviour.
8. To avoid all forms of pollution that result from agricultural
techniques.
9. To maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its
surroundings, including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats.
10. To allow agricultural producers for adequate return and satisfaction
from their work including a safe working environment.
11. To consider the wider, social and ecological impact of the farming
system.
Objectives of Organic Farming
IFOAM defined objectives
• Achieve ecological harmony and improved soil health by use of
natural organic inputs
• Sustain/ improve the soil fertility through increased microbial
activity
• Provide safe food for healthy living
• Maintain/ not interfere in natural cycles of an agro-eco-system
• Avoid inputs of adverse effects
Essential Characteristics of Organic Farming
The most important characteristics are as follows:

1. Maximal but sustainable use of local resources.
2. Minimal use of purchased inputs, only as complementary to local
resources.
3. Ensuring the basic biological functions of soil-water-nutrients-human
continuum.
4. Maintaining a diversity of plant and animal species as a basis for
ecological balance and economic stability.
5. Creating an attractive overall landscape which given satisfaction to the
local people.
6. Increasing crop and animal intensity in the form of polycultures,
agroforestry systems, integrated crop/livestock systems etc. to minimize
risks.
PRINCIPLES, SCOPE AND COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING
1. Principles of Organic Farming

Why?
• To understand the motivation of organic farmers, the practices they use and what they want to achieve,
it is important to understand the guiding principles of organic agriculture.
• These principles encompass the fundamental goals and caveats that are considered important for
producing high quality food, fibber and other goods in an environmentally sustainable way.
• Principles of organic agriculture have changed with the evolution of the movement and are now codified.
• The principles apply to agriculture in the broadest sense, including the way people tend soils, water,
plants and animals in order to produce, prepare and distribute food and other goods.
• They concern the way people interact with living landscapes, relate to one another and shape the legacy of
future generations.
• The principles of organic agriculture serve to inspire the organic society and program in its full diversity.
• They are the roots from which organic agriculture grows and develops.
• They express the contribution that organic agriculture can make to the world and a vision to improve all
agriculture in a global context.
• Principles of organic agriculture serve to inspire the organic movement in its full diversity.
PRINCIPLES, SCOPE AND COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC
FARMING
Principles of Organic Farming (in general):

• Build up the soil fertility
• Use of all possible natural sources of nutrients
• Biological fixation/ enrichment of nutrients
• Least interference to natural processes & equilibrium
• Use of natural methods of pest control
• Use of natural resistance & cultural methods
• Self supportive natural system
• No pollution hazards
PRINCIPLES, SCOPE AND COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC
FARMING
• The International Federation for Organic Agriculture Movement’s (IFOAM)

definition of organic farming is based on:
1. The Principle of Health.
2. The Principle of Ecology.
3. The Principle of Fairness.
4. The Principle of Care.
• Each principle is articulated through a statement followed by an explanation. The

principles are to be used as a whole. They are ethical principles to inspire action.
1.1 The principle of health

• Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human
and planet as one and indivisible.
• This principle points out that the health of indivisibles and communities cannot be
separated from the health of ecosystems – healthy soils produce healthy crops that
foster the health of animals and people.
• Health is the wholeness and integrity of living systems. It is not simply the absence of
illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being.
Immunity, resilience and regeneration are key characteristics of health.
• The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution or
consumption, is to sustain and enhance the health of ecosystems and organisms from
the smallest in the soil to human beings.
• In particular, organic agriculture is intended to produce high quality, nutritious food
that contributes to preventive health care and well-being. In view of this it should avoid
the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and food additives that may
have adverse health effects.
1.2 The principle of ecology

• Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them,
emulate them and help sustain them.
This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems:
• It states that production is to be based on ecological processes and recycling. Nourishment and
well-being are achieved through the ecology of the specific production environment. For
example, in the case of crops this is the living soil; for animals it is the farm ecosystem; for fish
and marine organisms, the aquatic environment.
• Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit the cycles and ecological
balances in nature.
• Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling and efficient management of materials and
energy in order to maintain or improve environmental quality and conserve resources.
• Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of farming systems,
establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agriculture diversity.
• Those who produce, process, trade, or consume organic products should protect and benefit
the common environment including landscapes, climate, habitats, bio-diversity, air and water.
1.3 The principle of fairness

• Organic agriculture should build up relationship that ensures fairness with regard to the common
environment and life opportunities.
• Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world; both among
people and in their relations to other living beings.
• This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conduct human relationships
in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties – farmers, workers, processors,
distributors, traders and consumers.
• Organic agriculture should provide everyone involved with a good quality of life and contribute to food
sovereignty and reduction of poverty. It aims to produce sufficient supply of good quality food and other
products.
• This principle insists that animals should be provided with the conditions and opportunities of life that
accord with their physiology, natural behaviour and well-being.
• Natural and environmental resources that are used for production and consumption should be
managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and should be held in trust for future
generation.
• Fairness requires systems of production, distribution and trade that are open and equitable and account
for real environmental and social costs.
1.4 The principle of care

• Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect
the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.
• Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to internal and external
demands and conditions.
• Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and increase productivity, but this
should not be at the risk of jeopardizing health and well-being.
• Consequently, new technologies need to be assessed and existing methods reviewed.
• This principle states that precaution and responsibilities are the key concerns in management,
development and technology choices in organic agriculture.
• Science is necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is healthy, safe and ecologically sound.
• However, scientific knowledge alone is not sufficient. Practical experience, accumulated wisdom
and traditional and indigenous knowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time.
• Organic agriculture should prevent significant risks by adoption appropriate technologies and
rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic engineering.
• Decisions should reflect the values and needs of all who might be affected, through
transparent and participatory processes.
PRINCIPLES AND COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING
• Organic farming is a form of agriculture which avoids or largely excluded the use of:
synthetic fertilisers and pesticides,
plant growth regulators and
livestock feed additives.
• Organic farming relies on:
crop rotation,
crop residues,
 animal manures,
bio-fertilisers and
mechanical cultivation
• With the aim to maintain soil productivity, to supply plant nutrients and to control weeds, insects,
disease and other pests.
2.1 Issues of concern

Major issues to be considered for a decision on conventional agriculture or organic
agriculture are:
• Organic farming and nutrient supply.
• Organic farming and plant protection.
• Organic farming and crop productivity.
• Organic farming and certification processes.
• Organic farming and heterogeneity of inputs.
• Organic farming and food quality.
• Organic farming products and marketing.
• Organic farming and switch over period.
2.1.1 Organic Farming and Nutrient Supply
• At present, there is a gap between annual addition and removal of nutrient by crops which are met by mining
nutrients from the soil.
• A negative balance of NPK is foreseen in future, even if we continue to use chemical fertilizers, maintaining
present growth rates of production and consumption.
• The most optimistic estimates at present showed that only about steady per cent nutrient needs of agriculture
can be met by utilising various organic sources.
• These organic sources are agriculture wastes, animal manure etc.
• 2.1.2 Organic Farming and Plant Protection
• Plant protection against the ravages of pests, diseases and weeds is an important issue if any modern high
production system is adopted.
• Exclusion of pesticides for plant protection poses greater risk of yield losses.
• Options available under organic production systems are very few and crop specific.
• Often they are very slow and the success rate depends on the prevailing weather conditions leading to low to
moderate effectiveness even in the recommended crops and situations.
• Thus, they limit the realization of full potential of crop yields.
• Any sudden outbreak of insect pests or plant disease can completely destroy the crops, unless requisite chemical
pesticides are used.
2.1.3 Organic Farming and Crop Productivity
• In general, it is observed that the crop productivity declines under organic farming. The extent
of decline depends on the crop type, farming systems practices followed at present etc. The
decline is more in high yielding and high nutrient drawing cereals as compared to legumes and
vegetables and in irrigated systems as compared to rainfed and dryland farming systems.
• Without using fertilizers, the requirement of area to merely sustain the present level of food
grain production will be more than the geographical area of any country! This is simple neither
possible nor sustainable.
2.1.4 Organic Farming and Certification Processes
• There are no standard certification processes uniformly applicable across different agro-climatic
conditions. Both process and product certification procedures are still evolutionary stage and
need further progress they can be effectively adopted.
• Due to biological nature of both processes and products, there is always an element of
dynamism subject to temporal and spatial conditions. Presently available certification
procedures are very cumbersome and expensive and out of reach for the common farmer. Due
to highly fragmented holdings of the farmers, there is possibility of “contamination” from the
neighbouring farms-besides the temptation to use chemical inputs to boost yields.
2.1.5 Organic Farming and Heterogeneity of Inputs
• There is large variability in the inputs used in organic farming.
• Due to biological nature of the inputs, prescribing uniform standards and
maintaining them in different agro-climatic conditions is beyond ones control.
• Thus leads to arbitrariness on the part of organic farmers as far as input
management is concerned.
2.1.6 Organic Farming and Food Quality
• It is often opined that the quality of the organically produced food is superior to
that of conventionally produced food.
• However, there is no such conclusive proof to justify the nutritional superiority of
the organically produced food over conventionally produced food.
• If the conventionally produced foods are blamed to contain traces of chemical
residues, the organically produced foods are equally to be blamed for their
contamination with harmful bacteria and other organism inimical to the health of
the consumers.
2.1.7 Organic Farming Products and Marketing

• There are no diagnostic techniques available as of now to distinguish
products from different farming systems.
• The perceived belief that organic products are good for health is
fetching them premium prices.
• However, dishonest dealers may sell anything and everything as
organically produced to unsuspecting buyer at higher prices resulting
in complete cheating.
2.1.8 Organic Farming and Switch over Period
• A transition period of 3-4 years is generally required to convert a

conventional farm into an organic farm.
• In this period, the produce is not considered as organically produced.
• The reduced yield and lack of benefits of premium for the produces is
a double shock for the farmers leading to financial losses which are
substantial for the small to medium farmers.
3.0 COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING
The components of organic farming are discussed in this section:
3.1 Organic Manures
• Organic materials such as farm yard manure, biogas slurry, compost, straw or other
crop residues, bio-fertilisers, green manures and cover crops can substitute for
inorganic fertilisers to maintain the environmental quality.
• In addition, the organic farmers can also use sea weeds and fish manures and some
permitted fertilisers like basic-slag and rock phosphate.
• Crop rotation with legumes as well as green manuring also provides nutrients and
improves the soil fertility.
3.2: Non-chemical weed control measures
• Compared to conventional farmers, the organic farmers use more of mechanical
cultivation of row crops to reduce the weed menace.
• No herbicides are applied as they lead to environmental pollution.
3.3 Biological pest management

• The control of insect pests and pathogens is one of the most challenging
jobs in tropical and sub-tropical agriculture.
• Here again non-chemical, biological pest management is encouraged.
• The conservation of natural enemies of pests is important for minimising
the use of chemical pesticides and for avoiding multiplication of
insecticide-resistant pests.
• Botanical pesticides such as those derived from neem could be used.
• Selective microbial pesticides offer particular promise, of which strains of
Bacillis thuringiensis is an example.
Assignment 2
• Discuss the magnitude of adoption of Principles and components of OA
in Rwanda, opportunities and constraints faced by farmers along the
route for their adoption.
Components of organic farming and their role in
sustainable crop production
1. Crop and Soil Management
• Organic farming systems encourage the use of rotations and manures to
maintain soil fertility.
• Crop rotations with legumes add N to soil fertility.
• Green manuring and intercropping of legumes is another important aspect for
organic farming system not only in regard to weed control, but also in reducing
the leaching of nutrients and in reducing soil erosion.
• Carefully managed soils with high proportion of humus offer essential
advantages with respect to water retention, ion exchange, soil erosion and
animal life in the soil.
• A high proportion of humus in the soil gives uniform distribution of nutrients and
also plant hygiene.
2. On Farm Waste Recycling
• The recycling of various forms of residues has advantage of converting surplus
farm wastes in to useful products for meeting nutrient requirement of crops
besides maintaining the soil productivity and improving the overall ecological
balance.
• Cereals, pulses, and commercial crops and animal dropping are the major source
for recycling source of valuable plant nutrients for sustainable crop production.
• Increasing prices of chemical fertilizers have enable organic wastes to regain an
important role in the fertilizer practices on the farm.
• Good manure management means improved fertilizer value of manure and less
nutrient losses.
• Composting of all organic waste in general, and of farm yard manure in particular
is important in organic farming .
3. Non-chemical Weed Management
• Weed management is one of the main concerns in organic agriculture.
• The use rate weedicides is particularly high in developed nations.
• There is also increasing use of pesticides in developing countries
• However, their use has resulted in multiple problems due to their slow
and low degradability, the environmental safety has been doubted.
• That apart, weed species are developing resistance to chemical
toxicants (Gautam and Mishtra, 1995).
• There is also problem of secondary pest and resurgence of weeds.
3. Non-chemical Weed Management
• In view of all these, developed nations are already taking measures to
reduce chemical load and are trying to find out chemical free means
of weed management.
• The elements to consider in preventing and control of weeds
problems are tillage practices, irrigation management, competitive
crops intercropping, crop rotation, plant geometry, biological control,
green manuring and manure management.
• Mulching on a longer scale by using manure spreaders may also be
useful in weed control.
4. Biological Pest Control
4.1 Cultural Practice
• Cultural practice is the oldest form of deliberate biological pest control. It is the
baseline, the prime technique which every good farmer uses to protect his
products.
• However, fine tuning by cultural practices is extremely complex.
• One can determine the precise action to maximize yield for each crop with every
seed quality in soil types of varying textures and quality with every alternative
method and timing of ploughing and tillage with possible addition of natural
fertilizers at various times,
• With every possible planting and harvesting date, under varied conditions of
residue removal and destruction, crop rotation, intercropping,
• With pretreatments like flooding.
4.2 Resistance
• Plant resistance is also included in the definition of biological control.
• Plant breeders have had many successes in production varieties
resistant to disease and occasionally to insets, although not so far
weeds.
• Resistance to soil pathogens may also be provided by the use of
resistant root stocks and grafting.
• Recent research has shown that plant can locally accumulate
antimicrobial compounds (Phytoalexins) in response to invasion by
disease.
4.3 Growing Trap Crop
• Crop plants more preferred by the pest for egg laying and feeding are
grown as trap
• crops on the bunds of the main crop or one row after every 10 rows.
• Removal and destruction of egg masses and small caterpillar from
trap crop.
4.4 Monitoring Pest Population
(a) Pheromone traps
(b) Light traps: Use one light trap for five hectare area
Components of organic farming and their role in sustainable crop
production
4.5 Erecting Bird Perches

• Bird perches help in attracting birds, keep water in a small bowl and
spread cooked yellow rice to attract insectivorous birds as an
example.
4.6 Releasing Parasites and Predators
• For management of pests, insects and disease vectors.
Example: Trichodermma japonicum should be released in sugarcane
field.
4.7 Biological Chemicals
• Another definition of biological control is the use of natural chemical.
• The identification of natural chemicals and subsequent formation of
their derivatives can open new areas of pest control.
• Chemicals which do not kill the insects, but either attract, repel,
modify their usual behavior, may also be regarded as biological
control agents.
• Behavior modifying chemicals which reduce mating frequency or
release large number of sterile insects, control pests biological by
reducing their numbers.
4.8 Biological Disease Control
• A major success in plant disease control has been the discovery of
use of other organisms to control some diseases:
• Development and marketing of Agrobacterium radiobacterium for
the prevention of crown gall caused by Agrobacterium temufaciens.
• When root pruned seedlings are dipped in liquid suspensions of A.
radiobacter, crown galls do not develop on the newly planted
seedlings even in fields infested with A. temufaciens.
• Trichogramma has potential as a preventive agent against Sclerotium
and Rhizoctonia.
4.9 Bio-herbicides
• Bio-herbicides are biological control agents applied in similar ways
as chemical to control weeds.
• The active ingredient in a bio-herbicide is a living organism, mostly a
microorganism.
• A herbicide made of mycelia fragments or spore of fungi is called
mycoherbicide.
• Commercial bio-herbicides first appeared in the market in the USA in
the early 1980’s with
• The Bureau of Plant Pathology of the division of plant industry in
Gainsville, Florida has developed the use of Phytophthora palmivora
for the control of milk weed vine in citrus orchards.
4.10 Bio-insecticides
• Biological control of insects by microorganisms has been the subject of
most research and development efforts in the past and is consequently
the most successful aspect of biological control.
• At present more than 3000 organisms have been reported to cause
disease in insects.
• In Bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) is known to infect of the caterpillars
and few beetle grubs.
• Bacillus thuringiensis has been commercially available for the last 30
years. Improvements in the strain and formulations have led to a
substantial in the market size for the control of over 100 insect species.
A new strain of B. thuringiensis var. israclienesis available for control of
mosquitoes including Anopheles.
Nutrient Management in Organic Farming
• In order to realize the potential of production systems on a sustained

basis, efficient management of resources is crucial (essential).
• A successful farming system relies on the management of organic matter
to enhance physico-chemical and biological properties of the soil.
• The effects of soil organic matter are dynamic as it is:
 a source of gradual release of essential plant nutrients;
improves soil structure, its drainage, aeration and water holding capacity
(WHC);
 improves soil buffer capacity; influence the solubility of minerals and
serves as a source of energy for the development of micro-organisms.
Concept and definition of INM
• The concept of biological INM is the continuous improvement of soil productivity on
long-term basis through appropriate use of :
• organic manures,
• green manures,
• Blue Green Alga (BGA),
• Biofertilizers (Biofertilizers are biological preparations of efficient microorganisms
that promote plant growth by improving nutrient acquisition. They enhance soil
productivity by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, solubilizing soil phosphorus, and
stimulating plant growth)
• And other biological derived materials and
• their scientific management (4Rs),
for optimum growth, yield and quality of crops and intensive cropping systems in
specific agro-ecological situations.
Definition of Biological INM
• According to Sanchaz (1994): It can also be defined as “a system for

approaching of soil nutrient management which maintain soil health,
soil fertility, sustaining agricultural productivity and improving farmers
profitability through effective, judicious and intensive use of biological
based nutrient management resources”.
• The resources are bio-fertilizers, organic manures, green manuring,

crop rotation, N-fixing organisms, mycorrhizae, etc.
Important sources for biological INM:
1. ORGANIC MANURES
FARM YARD MANURE (FYM)
COMPOST
BIOGAS SLURRY
NIGHT SOIL
SEWAGE AND SLUDGE
SHEEP, Pig and GOAT MANURE
POULTRY MANURE
GREEN MANURING
FISH MEAL
MEAT MEAL
HORN & HOOF MEAL
GUANO
RAW BONE MEAL
2. VERMICOMPOSTING
3. RECYCLING OF ORGANIC RESIDUES
4. BIO-FERTILIZERS (Microbial inoculants)
Desirable characteristics for green manure crops
The criteria for which green manure crops are selected should have following
characters,
• It should be high biomass production
• It should be deep rooting system
• It should be leguminous family
• It should be fast initial growth
• It should be more leafy than woody
• It should be low C/N ratio
• It should be non-host for crop related pathogens
• It should be easy and abundant seed producer
• It should be useful for ‘by-products’
DISEASE AND PEST MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
• The use of synthetic chemicals to manage pests has a number of

disadvantages which cause environmental pollution, phytotoxicity,
ground water contamination and adversely affect the soil and its
biotic environment.
• Indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides resulted in insecticide
resistance, resurgence and accumulation of pesticide residues in food,
fruits and vegetables.
• Integrated pest management measures are either preventive or
curative. Control of insect pest relies on understanding of the pest life
cycle, behavior and ecology.
• It involves natural enemies, host resistance and cultural practices.
• A. CULTURAL METHODS
• Cultural control is just a modification or manipulation of the environment

to the disfavour of pests by disrupting their reproductive cycles,
eliminating their foods, destroying their weed hosts or making the
environment more favourable for predators, parasitoids and antagonists.
• The important cultural practices suitable for organic production to

reduce the severity of insects, pests and diseases are as follows:
A. CULTURAL METHODS
1.Tillage operation
2. Field and plant sanitation
3. Crop rotation
4. Growing of pest resistant varieties
5. Trap cropping
6. Water management
8. Adjusting time of sowing
B. MECHANICAL METHODS :
• Hand picking of egg masses, gregarious larvae and sluggish/ lazy
adults and their destruction helps in reducing of pest population
1. Use of pheromones and light traps
2. Use of yellow sticky traps
3. Erecting bird perchase
4. Soil solarization
5. Use of nylon net
6. Hot water treatment
C. BIOLOGICAL METHODS
• Biological control means “The utilization of any living organisms for

the control of insect-pests, diseases and weeds.
• This means use of any biotic agent for minimizing the pest
population either directly or indirectly.
• Conservation of these biotic agents in the field or multiplying in the

laboratory and releasing in the fields is called biological control.
Some of the important bio-control agents are:

1. Predators
2. Parasitoids
3. Biological chemicals
4. Microbial insecticides
5. Mineral Insecticides
WEED MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
Weed Management in Organic Farming

• Increased use of herbicides has resulted many problems.
• The environment safety has been doubted with increased pollution
hazards.
• That apart, weed species are developing resistance to chemical
toxicants.
• More over there is also problem of resurgence of weeds.
• In organic farming weeds can be managed by the following
methods:
WEED MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
A: Preventive methods
B. Cultural methods
C. Mechanical methods
D. Soil solarization
E. Biological methods
 Insects
Plant pathogens
Allelopathy
Etc.
Assignment No 3
Discuss Opportunities, Constraints and Magnitude of adoption of

Crop Nutrient, Pest and Disease, and Weed Management in Organic
Farming in Rwanda.
Assignment No 4
Using 25 PPT Slides (Max.), develop a Comprehensive RECAP of the
Module Component (Farming Systems & Organic Agriculture (1:1 ratio).
THANK YOU VERY MUCH!!!!!!!!!!!

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Module Title: Integrated Farming Systems

Unit: Farming Systems and Organic Production in Agriculture

 Farming system represents an appropriate combination of farm enterprises (cropping

“Farming system” → set of agricultural activities organized while

Specialized vs Integrated Farming system

This involves improvement of operational efficiency and speed of operation/execution

• Using crop residues more rationally is an important route out of poverty.

• For resource-poor farmers, the correct management of crop residues, together

• Combining ecological sustainability and economic viability, the integrated

• Factors influencing Integration of Farm Enterprises

• Climatic features of the selected area.

• Availability of the resources, land, labor & Capital.

• Present level of utilization of resources.

• Economics of proposed integrated farming system.

• Managerial skills of farmer.

• A farm is a system in that it has INPUTS, PROCESSES and OUTPUTS

• Depending on the type of farming e.g. arable/pastoral, commercial/subsistence,

• Provide a steady (balanced) and stable income

• Achieve agro-ecological equilibrium through the reduction in the build-

• A combination of one or more enterprises with cropping when carefully

• Farm as a unit is to be considered and planned for effective integration

2.Crop may have sub-system like monocrop, mixed/intercrop, multi-tier

3. Livestock components may be milk cow, goat, sheep, poultry, bees,

Generally there are 3 different farming situations based on

• i. Rainfed (Dry) farming system

• ii. Irrigated (garden land) farming system and

• iii. Wetland farming system.

4 Mode of ownership Peasant Farming, Joint Farming, Co-operative Farming, State

• A farm on which no single product or source of income equals as much

• On such farm the farmer depends on several sources of income, e.g.

• It is fully dependent upon the rainfall.

Types of farming according to area of holding

• Green revolution technologies such as greater use of synthetic agro-chemicals like

2. In philosophical terms organic farming means “farming in spirit/ essence of

• Increase in population make compulsion to stabilize agricultural production,

• It may also cost heavily on any country foreign exchange in future.

•The goal of OF is to create an integrated, environmentally sound, safe and

The most important characteristics are as follows:

1. Principles of Organic Farming

Principles of Organic Farming (in general):

• The International Federation for Organic Agriculture Movement’s (IFOAM)

1. The Principle of Health.

2. The Principle of Ecology.

3. The Principle of Fairness.

4. The Principle of Care.

• Each principle is articulated through a statement followed by an explanation. The

1.1 The principle of health

1.2 The principle of ecology

1.3 The principle of fairness

1.4 The principle of care

2.1 Issues of concern

2.1.7 Organic Farming Products and Marketing

2.1.8 Organic Farming and Switch over Period

• A transition period of 3-4 years is generally required to convert a

• In this period, the produce is not considered as organically produced.

3.3 Biological pest management

4.5 Erecting Bird Perches

• In order to realize the potential of production systems on a sustained

• According to Sanchaz (1994): It can also be defined as “a system for