NETWORKING AND INTERNETWORKING

NETWORKING AND
INTERNETWORKING

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 NETWORKING AND INTERNETWORKING

Contents
 Networking Issues for Distributed Systems
 Basics of Networking
 Internet Protocols

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Networking Issues for Distributed Systems

 Following the subsequent development of
distributed applications that access the shared
resources a higher standard of performance is
required for networks underlying distributed
applications
 Also with the growth of Internet and its
commercialization more urgent requirements for
reliability, scalability, mobility, security and quality
of service have emerged. Here we define
performance in more details:

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Performance
 Performance: the performance parameters are
those affecting the speed of message transfer. They
are as the followings:
 Latency: Delay that occurs after a send operation is
executed before the data start to arrive at the destination
computer.
 Data transfer rate: Speed at which the data can be
transferred between two computers once transmission
has begun.
 Thus the transfer time for a message containing
length bit is: latency + length/data transfer rate

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Performance
 The equation for message transfer rate is only valid
if the length of message does not exceed a
maximum that is determined by the underlying
network technology. Longer messages have to be
segmented and transmission time is sum of the
times for segments.
 For example if message transfer is performed
between two processes in a distributed system
since messages are small, latency has greater
significance than transfer rate in that case.

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Performance
 The total system bandwidth of a network is a
measure of throughput
 The throughput is the total volume of traffic that can
be transferred across the network in a given time.
 In many Local Are Networks (LAN) such as
Ethernet system bandwidth is the same as the data
transfer rate.
 In most Wide Area Networks (WAN) since
messages can be transferred in different channels
simultaneously, total system bandwidth is different
from transfer rate.
 Next slide shows some networks performance
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Network Performance
Example Range Bandwidth Latency
(Mbps) (ms)
Wired:
LAN Ethernet 1-2 kms 10-1000 1-10
WAN IP routing worldwide 0.010-600 100-500
MAN ATM 250 kms 1-150 10
Internetwork Internet worldwide 0.5-600 100-500
Wireless:
WPAN Bluetooth (802.15.1) 10 - 30m 0.5-2 5-20
WLAN WiFi (IEEE 802.11) 0.15-1.5 km 2-54 5-20
WMAN WiMAX (802.16) 550 km 1.5-20 5-20
WWAN GSM, 3G phone nets worldwide 0.01-02 100-500

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Protocol layers
 Network software is arranged in a hierarchy of
layers
 Data is sent to sender through different layers
 Each layer of network software communicates with
the layers above and below it. See the next slide
 The protocol types of the above layers are
included in the packets sent by the sender to
enable the protocol stack at the receiver for
selecting the correct software component to
unpack the packets.

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Conceptual Layering of Protocol Software

Message sent Message received

Layer n

Layer 2
Layer 1
Sender Communication Recipient
medium

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Encapsulation in layered protocols

Application-layer message

Presentation header

Session header

Transport header

Network header

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Protocol Suites
 A complete set of protocols is referred to as
protocol suites or protocol stack , reflecting the
layered structure.
 Seven layer reference model for open systems
interconnection (OSI) adopted by International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) to
encourage the development of protocol standards
that would meet the requirements for open
systems.
 Next slides show OSI model and summary of its
protocols
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Protocol Layers in OSI Protocol Model

Message sent Message received

Layers
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data link
Physical
Sender Communication Recipient
medium

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OSI Protocol Summary

Layer Description Examples
Application Protocols that are designed to meet the communication requirements of HTTP, FTP , SMTP,
specific applications, often defining the interface to a service. CORBA
Presentation Protocols at this level transmit data in a network representation that is Secure Sockets
independent of the representations used in individual computers, which may ( SSL),CORBA Data
differ. Encryption is also performed in this layer, if required. Rep.
Session At this level reliability and adaptation are performed, such as detection of
failures and automatic recovery.
Transport This is the lowest level at which messages (rather than packets) are handled. TCP, UDP
Messages are addressed to communication ports attached to processes,
Protocols in this layer may be connection-oriented or connectionless.
Network Transfers data packets between computers in a specific network. In a WAN IP, ATM virtual
or an internetwork this involves the generation of a route passing through circuits
routers. In a single LAN no routing is required.
Data link Responsible for transmission of packets between nodes that are directly Ethernet MAC,
connected by a physical link. In a WAN transmission is between pairs of ATM cell transfer,
routers or between routers and hosts. In a LAN it is between any pair of hosts. PPP
Physical The circuits and hardware that drive the network. It transmits sequences of Ethernet base- band
binary data by analogue signalling, using amplitude or frequency modulation signalling, ISDN
of electrical signals (on cable circuits), light signals (on fibre optic circuits)
or other electromagnetic signals (on radio and microwave circuits). 13
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Routing
 Routing is a function that is required in all networks
excepts that LANs such as Ethernet that provide
the direct connection between all pairs of attached
hosts.
 In the large networks adaptive routing which is the
best route for communication between two points
and this route is identifies by periodically re-
evaluation, is employed.
 Assume a packet switching network shown in the
next slide, the routers located at connection points
are responsible for delivery of packets.
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Routing

A 1 B

Hosts 2
3 Links 4
or local C
networks 5
D 6 E
Routers

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Routing
 A simple algorithm for routing discussed here is
“distance vector” algorithm which is the basis for
link-state algorithm that is used by Internet.
 In this algorithm each router has a table contains a
single entry for each possible destination showing
the next hop (link field in the table) that packet must
take toward its destination.
 Cost field in the table is simple calculation of vector
distance or number of hopes for a given destination.
See the next slide that shows routing tables for the
previous network.
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Routing

Routings from A Routings from B Routings from C

To Link Cost To Link Cost To Link Cost
A local 0 A 1 1 A 2 2
B 1 1 B local 0 B 2 1
C 1 2 C 2 1 C local 0
D 3 1 D 1 2 D 5 2
E 1 2 E 4 1 E 5 1

Routings from D Routings from E

To Link Cost To Link Cost
A 3 1 A 4 2
B 3 2 B 4 1
C 6 2 C 5 1
D local 0 D 6 1
E 6 1 E local 0
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Routing
 For a packet addressed to C, when it arrives at
the router at A, the algorithm uses routing table
in A and choose the row staring with C therefore
forwards the packet to link labeled 1.
 When the packet arrives at B same procedure is
followed and link 2 will be selected
 When packet arrives at C, routing table entry
shows local that means packet should be
delivered to a local host
 The routing tables will be built up and maintained
whenever faults occur in the network

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RIP Routing Algorithm

 Each router exchanges and modifies information of its
routing table by using router information protocol (RIP)
routing algorithm, which does the following high level
actions :
1. Periodically and when the local routing changes each
router sends the table to all accessible neighbors. The
summary of table is sent in a RIP packet.
2. When a table is received from a neighbouring router if
received table shows a route to a new destination or
lower cost route to an existing destination then it
updates the local table with the new route.

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Internetworking
 To build an integrated network (an internetwork)
many subnets of different network technologies are
integrated. Internet made this possible by providing
the following items:
1. IP addresses
2. IP protocol
3. Internet Routers
 Next slide shows part of intranet that comprises
several subnets interconnected by routers

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Simplified View of the QMW Computer Science Network (2000)

router/
Campus 138.37.95.240/29 138.37.95.241 firewall
router subnet hammer

Staff subnet Student subnet

138.37.88 138.37.88.251 138.37.94.251 138.37.94

compute file server/

Eswitch Eswitch
server gateway
bruno
138.37.88.249 custard
138.37.94.246 printers
dialup
server
 henry
138.37.88.230
other
file servers
server
hotpoint
138.37.88.162

web
server
copper
138.37.88.248
hub hub

desktop computers 138.37.88.xx desktop computers 138.37.94.xx

sickle
Campus 138.37.95.248/29
router/ 100 Mbps Ethernet
router subnet 138.37.95.249 firewall
1000 Mbps Ethernet
Eswitch: Ethernet switch 21
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Internetworking
 In the previous slide the routers are in fact the
general purpose computers that serves as
firewalls. They may be interconnected through the
subnets or direct connection. In any case they are
responsible for forwarding the internetwork
packets and maintaining routing tables.
 Switches: Performs similar function as routers but
for local networks (usually Ethernet) only.
 Hubs: used for connecting hosts and extension

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Internet Protocols
 Internet emerged from the development of
ARPANET computer network and TCP/IP protocol
suites.
 TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and
IP for Internet Protocol.
 The technologies that are based on TCP/IP with
their application layer protocols (shown in
parentheses) including the Web(HTTP), email
(SMTP),netnews (NNTP), file transfer (FTP) and
Telnet (telnet)
 TCP/IP layers are shown in the next slide
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TCP/IP Layers

Message
Layers

Application
Messages (UDP) or Streams (TCP)

Transport
UDP or TCP packets

Internet
IP datagrams

Network interface
Network-specific frames

Underlying network

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Internet Protocols
 Note that the Internet Protocol (IP) is underlying
layer of Internet virtual network, which means IP
datagrams provides the basic transmission
mechanism for Internet and other TCP/IP networks.
 IP packets produced by Internet layer can be
transferred over any underlying networks or data
links.

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Encapsulation in a Message Transmitted via TCP over an Ethernet

Application message

TCP header port

IP header TCP

Ethernet header IP

Ethernet frame

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Internet Protocols
 The success of TCP/IP is based on their
independence of underlying transmission
technology, which enables the internetworking to
be built up from many heterogeneous networks and
data links.
 IP addressing and IP protocols are two design
aspects of Internet protocols.
 The version of IP currently using is IPv4. New
version is IPv6 that designed to overcome
addressing limitation of IPv4.
 The design of Internet address space and IP packet
layout are shown in the next Slides
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Internet Address Structure

7 24
Class A: 0 Network ID Host ID

14 16
Class B: 1 0 Network ID Host ID

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Class C: 1 1 0 Network ID Host ID

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Class D (multicast): 1 1 1 0 Multicast address

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Class E (reserved): 1 1 1 1 0 unused

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IP Packet Layout

header
IP address of source IP address of destination data
up to 64 kilobytes

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