BATTERIES AND ALTERNATIVE

SOURCES OF ENERGY

Jluedoe Bornor
 Introduction
 Batteries store electricity in a chemical form,
inside a closed-energy system.
 They can be re-charged and re-used as a power
source in small appliances, machinery and
remote locations.
 Batteries can store d.c. electrical energy
produced by renewable sources such as solar,
wind and hydro power in chemical form.
 Objectives
 
 At the end of the lesson student should be able to:
 list practical applications of batteries
 understand electrolysis and its applications,
including electroplating
 appreciate the purpose and construction of a simple
cell
 explain polarization and local action
 explain corrosion and its effects
 define the terms e.m.f., E , and internal resistance, r ,
of a cell
 perform calculations using V =E –Ir
 determine the total e.m.f. and total internal resistance
for cells connected in series and in parallel
 distinguish between primary and secondary cells
 explain the construction and practical applications of
the Leclanché, mercury, lead–acid and alkaline cells
 list the advantages and disadvantages of alkaline cells
over lead–acid cells
 understand the term ‘cell capacity’ and state its unit
 understand the importance of safe battery disposal
 appreciate advantages of fuel cells and their likely
future applications
 understand the implications of alternative energy
sources and state five examples
 Introduction to Batteries
 A battery is a device that converts chemical energy to
electricity.
 If an appliance is placed between its terminals the current
generated will power the device.
 Batteries are an indispensable item for many electronic
devices and are essential for devices that require power
when no means of power is available.
 For example, without the battery, there would be no
mobile phones or laptop computers.
 The battery is now over 200 years old and batteries are
found almost everywhere in consumer and industrial
products.
 Some practical examples where batteries are used include:
laptops, cameras, mobile phones, cars, watches and clocks,
e.t.c.
 Batteries are splited into two categories –
primary, which are not designed to be
electrically recharged, i.e. are disposable, and
secondary batteries, which are designed to be
recharged, such as those used in mobile phones.
 In more recent years it has been necessary to design
batteries with reduced size, but with increased
lifespan and capacity.
 If an application requires small size and high power
then the 1.5V battery is used.
 If longer lifetime is required then the 3 to 3.6V
battery is used.
 In the 1970s the 1.5V manganese battery was
gradually replaced by the alkaline battery.
 Silver oxide batteries were gradually introduced
in the 1960s and are still the preferred technology
for watch batteries today.
 Lithium-ion batteries were introduced in the 1970s
because of the need for longer lifetime
applications. Indeed, some such batteries have
been known to last well over ten years before
replacement, a characteristic that means that these
batteries are still very much in demand today for
digital cameras, and sometimes, for watches and
computer clocks. Lithium batteries are capable of
delivering high currents but tend to be expensive.
 Some Chemical Effects of Electricity

 A material must contain charged particles to be able to conduct electric

current.
 In solid conductors like Copper, lead, aluminum, iron and carbon the
current is carried by electrons.
 In liquids and gases, the current is carried by the part of a molecule
which has acquired an electric charge, called ions.
 These can possess a positive or negative charge, and examples include
hydrogen ion H+, copper ion Cu++ and hydroxyl ion OH−.
 Distilled water contains no ions and is a poor conductor of electricity,
whereas saltwater contains ions and is a fairly good conductor of
electricity.
 Electrolysis is the decomposition of a liquid compound by the passage
of electric current through it.
 Practical applications of electrolysis include the electroplating of
metals, the refining of copper and the extraction of aluminum from its
ore.
 An electrolyte is a compound which will undergo electrolysis.
 Examples include saltwater, copper sulphate and sulphuric acid.
 The electrodes are the two conductors carrying current to the
electrolyte.
 The positive connected electrode is called the anode and the
negative connected electrode the cathode.
 When two copper wires connected to a battery are placed in a
beaker containing a salt water solution, current will flow through
the solution.
 Air bubbles appear around the wires as the water is changed into
hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis.
 Electroplating uses the principle of electrolysis to apply a thin
coat of one metal to another metal.
 If two copper electrodes connected to a battery are placed in a
beaker containing copper sulphate as the electrolyte it is found
that the cathode (i.e. the electrode connected to the negative
terminal of the battery) gains copper whilst the anode loses
copper.
 The Simple Cell
  The purpose of an electric cell is to convert chemical energy
into electrical energy.
 A simple cell comprises two dissimilar conductors
(electrodes) in an electrolyte. Such a cell is shown below,
comprising copper and zinc electrodes.
 An electric current is found to flow between the electrodes.
Other possible electrode pairs exist, including zinc–lead and
zinc–iron.
 The electrode potential (i.e. the p.d.measured between the
electrodes) varies for each pair of metals.
 By knowing the e.m.f. of each metal with respect to some
standard electrode, the e.m.f. of any pair of metals may be
determined.
 In a simple cell two faults exist those due to polarization
and local action.
 Polarization
 If the simple cell shown above is left connected for some
time, the current I decreases fairly rapidly.
 This is because of the formation of a film of hydrogen
bubbles on the copper anode.
 This effect is known as the polarization of the cell.
 The hydrogen prevents full contact between the copper
electrode and the electrolyte and this increases the
internal resistance of the cell.
 The effect can be overcome by using a chemical
depolarizing agent or depolarizer, such as potassium
dichromate, which removes the hydrogen bubbles as
they form.
 This allows the cell to deliver a steady current.
 Local action
 When commercial zinc is placed in dilute sulphuric acid,
hydrogen gas is liberated from it and the zinc dissolves.
 The reason for this is that impurities, such as traces of
iron, are present in the zinc which set up small primary
cells with the zinc.
 These small cells are short circuited by the electrolyte,
with the result that localized currents flow, causing
corrosion.
 This action is known as local action of the cell.
 This may be prevented by rubbing a small amount of
mercury on the zinc surface, which forms a protective
layer on the surface of the electrode.
 When two metals are used in a simple cell the
electrochemical series may be used to predict the
behavior of the cell:
 The metal that is higher in the series acts as the negative
electrode, and vice versa. For example, the zinc electrode
in the cell above is negative and the copper electrode is
positive.
 The greater the separation in the series between the two
metals the greater is the e.m.f. produced by the cell.
 The electrochemical series is representative of the order of
reactivity of the metals and their compounds:
 The higher metals in the series react more readily with
oxygen and vice-versa.
 When two metal electrodes are used in a simple cell the
one that is higher in the series tends to dissolve in the
electrolyte.
 Corrosion
 Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal in a damp
atmosphere by means of simple cell action.
 In addition to the presence of moisture and air required for
rusting, an electrolyte, an anode and a cathode are required
for corrosion.
 Thus, if metals widely spaced in the electrochemical series are
used in contact with each other in the presence of an
electrolyte, corrosion will occur.
 The effects of corrosion include the weakening of structures,
the reduction of the life of components and materials, the
wastage of materials and the expense of replacement.
 Corrosion may be prevented by coating with paint, grease,
plastic coatings and enamels, or by plating with tin or
chromium. Also, iron may be galvanized, i.e. plated with zinc,
the layer of zinc helping to prevent the iron from corroding.
 E.M.F. And Internal Resistance of A Cell
  The electromotive force (e.m.f.), E , of a cell is the p.d. between its
terminals when it is not connected to a load (i.e. the cell is on ‘no
load’).
 The e.m.f. of a cell is measured by using a high resistance voltmeter
connected in parallel with the cell. The voltmeter must have a high
resistance otherwise it will pass current and the cell will not be on
‘no load’.
 For example, if the resistance of a cell is 1Ω and that of a voltmeter
1MΩ then the equivalent resistance of the circuit is 1MΩ+ 1Ω, i.e.
approximately 1MΩ, hence no current flows and the cell is not
loaded.
 The voltage available at the terminals of a cell falls when a load is
connected. This is caused by the internal resistance of the cell which
is the opposition of the material of the cell to the flow of current.
 The internal resistance acts in series with other resistances in the
circuit.
 When a load is not connected, no current flows
and the terminal p.d., V =E .
 When R is connected a current I flows which
causes a voltage drop in the cell, given by Ir .
 The p.d. available at the cell terminals is less than
the e.m.f. of the cell and is given by: V = E−Ir
 If a battery of e.m.f. 12 volts and internal resistance
0. 01Ω delivers a current of 100 A, the terminal p.d.
 
V = 12−( 100)( 0. 01) = 12− 1 = 11V 

 Since V =E −Ir then the internal resistance may be

calculated from:
r = E−V/I
 A battery is a combination of more than one cell.
The cells in a battery may be connected in series or
in parallel.
 For cells connected in series: Total e.m.f. = sum of
cells’ e.m.f.s Total internal resistance = sum of
cells’ internal resistances
 For cells connected in parallel: If each cell has the
same e.m.f. and internal resistance: Total e.m.f. =
e.m.f. of one cell. Total internal resistance of n
cells = 1/n x internal resistance of one cell.
 Primary Cells

Primary cells cannot be recharged, that is, the

conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy is
irreversible and the cell cannot be used once the
chemicals are exhausted. Examples of primary cells
include the Leclanché cell and the mercury cell
 Leclanché Cell

 A typical dry Leclanché cell has an e.m.f. of about

1.5V when new, but this falls rapidly if in
continuous use due to polarization.
 The hydrogen film on the carbon electrode forms
faster than can be dissipated by the depolarizer.
 The Leclanché cell is suitable only for intermittent
use, applications including torches, transistor
radios, bells, indicator circuits, gas lighters,
controlling switch-­‐gear and so on.
 The cell is the most commonly used of primary
cells, is cheap, requires little maintenance and has
a shelf life of about two years.
 Mercury Cell
 A typical mercury cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.3V
which remains constant for a relatively long time.
 Its main advantages over the Leclanché cell is its
smaller size and its long shelf life.
 Typical practical applications include hearing
aids, medical electronics, cameras and for guided
missiles.
 Secondary Cells
 Secondary cells can be recharged after use, that is,
the conversion of chemical energy to electrical
energy is reversible and the cell may be used many
times.
 Examples of secondary cells include the lead–acid
cell and the nickel cadmium and nickel–metal
cells.
 Practical applications of such cells include car
batteries, telephone circuits and for traction
purposes – such as milk delivery vans and fork-­‐
lift trucks.
 Lead–acid Cell
 A typical lead–acid cell is constructed of:
 A container made of glass, ebonite or plastic.
 Lead plates
 the negative plate (cathode) consists of spongy lead
 the positive plate (anode) is formed by pressing lead
peroxide into the lead grid.  
 Separators made of glass, celluloid or wood.
 An electrolyte which is a mixture of sulphuric acid
and distilled water.
 Nickel Cadmium And Nickel–Metal Cells
 In both types the positive plate is made of nickel
hydroxide enclosed in finely perforated steel
tubes, the resistance being reduced by the
addition of pure nickel or graphite. The tubes are
assembled into nickel–steel plates.
 In the nickel–metal cell (sometimes called the
Edison cell or nife cell ), the negative plate is made
of iron oxide, with the resistance being reduced by
a little mercuric oxide, the whole being enclosed
in perforated steel tubes and assembled in steel
plates.
 In the nickel cadmium cell the negative plate is
made of cadmium.
 The electrolyte in each type of cell is a solution of
potassium hydroxide which does not undergo any
chemical change and thus the quantity can be
reduced to a minimum.
 The plates are separated by insulating rods and
assembled in steel containers which are then
enclosed in a non-­‐metallic crate to insulate the
cells from one another.
 The average discharge p.d. of an alkaline cell is
about 1.2V.
 Cell Capacity

 The capacity of a cell is measured in ampere-­‐

hours (Ah). A fully charged 50Ah battery rated
for 10 h discharge can be discharged at a steady
current of 5A for 10 h, but if the load current is
increased to 10A then the battery is discharged
in 3–4 h, since the higher the discharge current,
the lower is the effective capacity of the battery.
 Alternative And Renewable Energy Sources
 Alternative energy refers to energy sources which
could replace coal, traditional gas and oil, all of which
increase the atmospheric carbon when burned as fuel.
 Renewable energy implies that it is derived from a
source which is automatically replenished or one that is
effectively infinite so that it is not depleted as it is used.
 Coal, gas and oil are not renewable because, although
the fields may last for generations, their time span is
finite and will eventually run out.
 There are many means of harnessing energy which
have less damaging impacts on our environment and
include the following:
 Solar Energy
 Solar energy is one of the most resourceful sources
of energy for the future. The reason for this is that
the total energy received each year from the sun is
around 35 000 times the total energy used by man.
However, about one-­‐third of this energy is either
absorbed by the outer atmosphere or reflected back
into space. Solar energy could be used to run cars,
power plants and space ships.
 Solar panels on roofs capture heat in water storage
systems. Photovoltaic cells, when suitably
positioned, convert sunlight to electricity.
 Wind Power
 Wind power is another alternative energy source that
can be used without producing by-­‐products that are
harmful to nature.
 The fins of a windmill rotate in a vertical plane which
is kept vertical to the wind by means of a tail fin and
as wind flow crosses the blades of the windmill it is
forced to rotate and can be used to generate electricity.
 Like solar power, harnessing the wind is highly
dependent upon weather and location. The average
wind velocity of Earth is around 9m/s, and the power
that could be produced when a windmill is facing a
wind of 10 m.p.h. (i.e. around 4.5 m/s) is around
50watts.
 Hydroelectricity
 Hydroelectricity is achieved by the damming of
rivers and utilizing the potential energy in the
water.
 As the water stored behind a dam is released at
high pressure, its kinetic energy is transferred onto
turbine blades and used to generate electricity.
 The system has enormous initial costs but has
relatively low maintenance costs and provides
power quite cheaply