Digital Communication 1

Digital Communication - Analog to Digital

Analog to Digital
• The communication that occurs in our day-to-day life is in the form of
signals.
• These signals, such as sound signals, generally, are analog in nature.
• When the communication needs to be established over a distance,
then the analog signals are sent through wire, using different
techniques for effective transmission.
The Necessity of Digitization
• The conventional methods of communication used analog signals for
long distance communications, which suffer from many losses such as
distortion, interference, and other losses including security breach.
• In order to overcome these problems, the signals are digitized using
different techniques. The digitized signals allow the communication to
be more clear and accurate without losses.
• The following figure indicates the difference between analog and
digital signals. The digital signals consist of 1s and 0s which indicate
High and Low values respectively.
Advantages of Digital Communication

• The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals
as they are less affected.
• Digital circuits are more reliable.
• Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
• The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
• The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
• The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its
properties, which is very difficult.
•.
Advantages of Digital Communication---
Cont
• Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in
digital circuits to maintain the secrecy of the information.
• The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error
correcting codes.
• Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.
• Combining digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is easier than
combining analog signals using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
• The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.
• Digital signals can be saved and retrieved more conveniently than analog signals.
• Many of the digital circuits have almost common encoding techniques and hence
similar devices can be used for a number of purposes.
• The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals
Elements of Digital Communication
Sections of the digital communication system
• Source
The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal
• Input Transducer
This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to an
electrical signal (Example: microphone). This block also consists of an analog
to digital converter where a digital signal is needed for further processes.
A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.
• Source Encoder
The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of bits. This
process helps in effective utilization of the bandwidth. It removes the
redundant bits (unnecessary excess bits, i.e., zeroes).
Sections of the digital communication
system-
• Channel Encoder
• The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction. During the transmission of
the signal, due to the noise in the channel, the signal may get altered and hence to
avoid this, the channel encoder adds some redundant bits to the transmitted data.
These are the error correcting bits.
• Digital Modulator
• The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The signal is also converted
to analog from the digital sequence, in order to make it travel through the channel or
medium.
• Channel
• The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit from the transmitter
end to the receiver end.
Sections of the digital communication
system-
• Digital Demodulator
This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is
demodulated as well as converted again from analog to digital. The
signal gets reconstructed here.
• Channel Decoder
The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error
corrections. The distortions which might occur during the transmission,
are corrected by adding some redundant bits. This addition of bits
helps in the complete recovery of the original signal.
• Source Decoder
The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that the
pure digital output is obtained without the loss of information. The source
decoder recreates the source output.
• Output Transducer
This is the last block which converts the signal into the original physical form,
which was at the input of the transmitter. It converts the electrical signal into
physical output (Example: loud speaker).
• Output Signal
This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example − The
sound signal received.
Pulse Code Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier
signal in accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal.
• The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for
communication and the carrier signal is a high frequency signal which
has no data, but is used for long distance transmission.
• There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according
to the type of modulation employed. Of them all, the digital
modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
• A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into
a binary sequence, i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a
binary sequence. The following figure shows an example of PCM output
with respect to instantaneous values of a given sine wave.
An Analog Signal Being Digitised
• Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits,
and hence this process is called as digital. Each one of these digits,
though in binary code, represent the approximate amplitude of the
signal sample at that instant.
• In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a
sequence of coded pulses. This message signal is achieved by
representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude.
Basic Elements of PCM

• The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of

Sampling, Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the
analog-to-digital converter section. The low pass filter prior to
sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.
• The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of
impaired signals, decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized
pulse train. Following is the block diagram of PCM which represents
the basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver sections.
• Low Pass Filter
This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the
input analog signal which is greater than the highest frequency of the
message signal, to avoid aliasing of the message signal.
• Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at
instantaneous values of message signal, so as to reconstruct the
original signal. The sampling rate must be greater than twice the
highest frequency component W of the message signal, in accordance
with the sampling theorem.
• Quantizer
Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the
data. The sampled output when given to Quantizer, reduces the
redundant bits and compresses the value.
• Encoder
The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates
each quantized level by a binary code. The sampling done here is the
sample-and-hold process. These three sections (LPF, Sampler, and
Quantizer) will act as an analog to digital converter. Encoding minimizes
the bandwidth used.
• Regenerative Repeater
This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also
has one regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and
reconstruct the signal, and also to increase its strength.
• Decoder
The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the
original signal. This circuit acts as the demodulator.
• Reconstruction Filter
After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit
and the decoder, a low-pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction
filter to get back the original signal.
Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal,
codes it and samples it, and then transmits it in an analog form. This whole
process is repeated in a reverse pattern to obtain the original signal.
Digital Communication - Sampling

• Sampling is defined as, “The process of measuring the instantaneous

values of continuous-time signal in a discrete form.”
• The following figure indicates a continuous-time signal x (t) and a
sampled signal xs (t). When x (t) is multiplied by a periodic impulse
train, the sampled signal xs (t) is obtained.
• Sampling Rate
To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed.
That gap can be termed as a sampling period Ts.
• Sampling frequency is the reciprocal of the sampling period. This
sampling frequency, can be simply called as Sampling rate. The
sampling rate denotes the number of samples taken per second, or for
a finite set of values.
• Nyquist Rate
Suppose that a signal is band-limited with no frequency components
higher than W Hertz. That means, W is the highest frequency. For such a
signal, for effective reproduction of the original signal, the sampling rate
should be twice the highest frequency.
Sampling Theorem

• The sampling theorem, which is also called as Nyquist theorem,

delivers the theory of sufficient sample rate in terms of bandwidth for
the class of functions that are bandlimited.
• The sampling theorem states that, “a signal can be exactly reproduced
if it is sampled at the rate fs which is greater than twice the maximum
frequency W.”
• Aliasing
Aliasing can be referred to as “the phenomenon of a high-frequency
component in the spectrum of a signal, taking on the identity of a low-
frequency component in the spectrum of its sampled version.”
Corrective measures to reduce the effect of
Aliasing
• In the transmitter section of PCM, a low pass anti-aliasing filter is
employed, before the sampler, to eliminate the high frequency
components, which are unwanted.

• The signal which is sampled after filtering, is sampled at a rate slightly

higher than the Nyquist rate.
Digital Communication - Quantization

• The method of sampling chooses a few points on the analog signal

and then these points are joined to round off the value to a near
stabilized value. Such a process is called as Quantization.
Quantizing an Analog Signal
• The analog-to-digital converters perform this type of function to
create a series of digital values out of the given analog signal. The
following figure represents an analog signal. This signal to get
converted into digital, has to undergo sampling and quantizing.
• Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by
a finite set of levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude
sample into a discrete-time signal.
• Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information. The
quality of a Quantizer output depends upon the number of
quantization levels used.
• The discrete amplitudes of the quantized output are called as
representation levels or reconstruction levels.
• The spacing between the two adjacent representation levels is called
a quantum or step-size.
• This is also called as Stair-case waveform, in accordance with its
shape.
Quantization Error

• The difference between an input value and its quantized value is

called a Quantization Error
• A Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs Quantization
(rounding off the value). An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) works
as a quantizer.
• Quantization Noise is a type of quantization error, which usually
occurs in analog audio signal, while quantizing it to digital.
• Companding in PCM is a non-linear technique used in PCM which
compresses the data at the transmitter and expands the same data at
the receiver.
Differential PCM (DPCM)
• To process this redundant information and to have a better output, it
is a wise decision to take a predicted sampled value, assumed from its
previous output and summarize them with the quantized values.
• DPCM Transmitter consists of Quantizer and Predictor with two
summer circuits.
• The predictor produces the assumed samples from the previous
outputs of the transmitter circuit.

• Predictor input is the sum of quantizer output and predictor output,

DPCM Receiver

• The block diagram of DPCM Receiver consists of a decoder, a

predictor, and a summer circuit.

• The input given to the decoder is processed and that output is

summed up with the output of the predictor, to obtain a better
output.
Delta Modulation

• The type of modulation, where the sampling rate is much higher and
in which the stepsize after quantization is of a smaller value Δ.
Features of Delta Modulation

• An over-sampled input is taken to make full use of the signal

correlation.
• The quantization design is simple.
• The input sequence is much higher than the Nyquist rate.
• The quality is moderate.
Features of Delta Modulation -----cont
• The design of the modulator and the demodulator is simple.
• The stair-case approximation of output waveform.
• The step-size is very small, i.e., Δ (delta).
• The bit rate can be decided by the user.
• This involves simpler implementation.

As the sampling interval is reduced, the signal correlation will be higher.

Delta Modulator

• The Delta Modulator comprises of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit

along with two summer circuits. Following is the block diagram of a
delta modulator.
Delta Demodulator

• The delta demodulator comprises of a low pass filter, a summer, and a

delay circuit. The predictor circuit is eliminated here and hence no
assumed input is given to the demodulator.
• Low pass filter is used for many reasons, but the
prominent reason is noise elimination for out-of-band
signals.
• The step-size error that may occur at the transmitter is
called granular noise, which is eliminated here. If
there is no noise present, then the modulator output
equals the demodulator input.
Advantages of DM Over DPCM

• 1-bit quantizer
• Very easy design of the modulator and the
demodulator
• However, there exists some noise in DM.
• Slope Over load distortion (when Δ is small)
• Granular noise (when Δ is large)
Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM)

• In digital modulation, we have come across certain

problem of determining the step-size, which
influences the quality of the output wave.

• Adaptive Delta Modulation involves controlling the

adjustment of step-size, according to our requirement
in order to obtain the sampling in a desired fashion.
Adaptive Delta Modulator
• The gain of the voltage controlled amplifier is adjusted
by the output signal from the sampler.

• The amplifier gain determines the step-size and both

are proportional.

• ADM quantizes the difference between the value of

the current sample and the predicted value of the
next sample.
Techniques - Linear Predictive Coding

• is a tool which represents digital speech signals in linear predictive

model.
• is based on the idea that the current sample is based on the linear
combination of past samples.
• The analysis estimates the values of a discrete-time signal as a linear
function of the previous samples.
• the predictor co-efficient values are determined by minimizing the
sum of squared differences (over a finite interval) between the actual
speech samples and the linearly predicted ones.
• useful method for encoding speech at a low bit rate.
Techniques - Multiplexing

• is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a

shared medium.

• These signals, if analog in nature, the process is called as analog

multiplexing.
• If digital signals are multiplexed, it is called as digital multiplexing.
Types of Multiplexers

• There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital.
They are further divided into FDM, WDM, and TDM.
Analog Multiplexing -
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

• In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
• This technique uses various frequencies to combine
streams of data, for sending them on a
communication medium, as a single signal.
• Example − A traditional television transmitter, which
sends a number of channels through a single cable,
uses FDM.
Analog Multiplexing -
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Technique in which many data streams of different wavelengths are
transmitted in the light spectrum.
• If the wavelength increases, the frequency of the signal decreases.
• A prism which can turn different wavelengths into a single line, can be
used at the output of MUX and input of DEMUX.
• Example − Optical fiber communications use WDM technique to
merge different wavelengths into a single light for communication.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Digital - Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots.

• This technique is used to transmit a signal over a single
communication channel, by allotting one slot for each message.
• In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of
time slot.
• Each user can transmit data within the provided time slot only.
Synchronous TDM

• In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’

number of connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One
slot is allocated for each input line.
• TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-
multiplexer are timely synchronized and both switch to next channel
simultaneously.
• When channel A transmits its frame at one end, the De-multiplexer
provides media to channel A on the other end.
• As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel
B.
• On the other end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner
and provides media to channel B.
Synchronous TDM
Asynchronous TDM
• 1. It is also known as statistical time division multiplexing.
• 2. Asynchronous TDM is called so because is this type of multiplexing,
time slots are not fixed i.e. the slots are flexible.
• 3. Here, the total speed of input lines can be greater than the capacity of
the path.
• 4. In synchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then there are n slots in
one frame. But in asynchronous it is not so.
• 5. In asynchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then the frame contains
not more than m slots, with m less than n (m < n).
• 6. In asynchronous TDM, the number of time slots in a frame is based on
a statistical analysis of number of input lines.
• 7. In this system slots are not predefined, the slots are allocated to
any of the device that has data to send.
• 8. The multiplexer scans the various input lines, accepts the data from
the lines that have data to send, fills the frame and then sends the
frame across the link.
• 9. If there are not enough data to fill all the slots in a frame, then the
frames are transmitted partially filled.
Asynchronous TDM
Advantages and Disadvantages of TDM
• Advantages of TDM :
1. Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
2. lntermodulation distortion is absent.
3. TDM circuitry is not very complex.
4. The problem of crosstalk is not severe.
• Disadvantages of TDM :
1. Synchronization is essential for proper operation.
2. Due to slow narrowband fading, all the TDM channels may get wiped
out.
LINE CODES
• is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a
transmission line.
• This process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and distortion of
signal such as inter-symbol interference.

Types of Line Coding:

• Unipolar
• Polar
• Bi-polar
Properties of Line Coding

• As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal,

the bandwidth used is much reduced.
• For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
• The probability of error is much reduced.
• Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
• Power density is much favorable.
• The timing content is adequate.
• Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.
Unipolar Signaling

• Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off Keying or simply OOK.

• The presence of pulse represents a 1 and the absence of pulse
represents a 0.
There are two variations in Unipolar signaling −
• Non Return to Zero (NRZ)
• Return to Zero (RZ)
Unipolar Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

• In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data is represented by a

positive pulse called as Mark, which has a duration T0 equal to the
symbol bit duration.
• A Low in data input has no pulse.
Advantages
• The advantages of Unipolar NRZ are −
• It is simple.
• A lesser bandwidth is required.
Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of Unipolar NRZ are −
• No error correction done.
• Presence of low frequency components may cause the signal droop.
• No clock is present.
• Loss of synchronization is likely to occur (especially for long strings of
1s and 0s).
Unipolar Return to Zero (RZ)

• In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a

Mark pulse, its duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration.
• Half of the bit duration remains high but it immediately returns to zero
and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the bit
duration.
Advantages
• The advantages of Unipolar RZ are −
• It is simple.
• The spectral line present at the symbol rate can be used as a clock.
Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of Unipolar RZ are −
• No error correction.
• Occupies twice the bandwidth as unipolar NRZ.
• The signal droop is caused at the places where signal is non-zero at 0
Hz.
Polar Signaling

There are two methods of Polar Signaling. They are −

• Polar NRZ
• Polar RZ

Polar NRZ
• In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data is represented by a
positive pulse, while a Low in data is represented by a negative pulse
Advantages
• The advantages of Polar NRZ are −
• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.
Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of Polar NRZ are −
• No error correction.
• No clock is present.
• The signal droop is caused at the places where the signal is non-zero
at 0 Hz.
Polar RZ

• In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a

Mark pulse, its duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration.
• Half of the bit duration remains high but it immediately returns to
zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the
bit duration.
• However, for a Low input, a negative pulse represents the data, and
the zero level remains same for the other half of the bit duration.
Advantages
• The advantages of Polar RZ are −
• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.
Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of Polar RZ are −
• No error correction.
• No clock is present.
• Occupies twice the bandwidth of Polar NRZ.
• The signal droop is caused at places where the signal is non-zero at 0
Hz.
Bipolar Signaling

• This is an encoding technique which has three voltage levels namely

+, - and 0. Such a signal is called as duo-binary signal.
• An example of this type is Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI). For a 1,
the voltage level gets a transition from + to – or from – to +, having
alternate 1s to be of equal polarity. A 0 will have a zero voltage level.
Even in this method, we have two types:
• Bipolar NRZ
• Bipolar RZ
• The above figure has both the Bipolar NRZ and RZ waveforms. The
pulse duration and symbol bit duration are equal in NRZ type, while
the pulse duration is half of the symbol bit duration in RZ type.
Advantages
• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.
• Occupies low bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ schemes.
• This technique is suitable for transmission over AC coupled lines, as
signal drooping doesn’t occur here.
• A single error detection capability is present in this.
Disadvantages
• No clock is present.
• Long strings of data causes loss of synchronization.
Data Encoding Techniques - Encoding

• Encoding is the process of converting the data or a given sequence of

characters, symbols, alphabets etc., into a specified format, for the
secured transmission of data.
• Decoding is the reverse process of encoding which is to extract the
information from the converted format.
Data Encoding
• Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current
levels to represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission
link.
• The common types of line encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and
Manchester.
Encoding Techniques

The data encoding technique is divided into the following types, depending upon the
type of data conversion.
• Analog data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as Amplitude
Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of analog signals, fall under
this category.
• Analog data to Digital signals − This process can be termed as digitization, which is
done by Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Hence, it is nothing but digital modulation. As
we have already discussed, sampling and quantization are the important factors in
this. Delta Modulation gives a better output than PCM.
• Digital data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as Amplitude Shift
Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), etc., fall under this
category. These will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
• Digital data to Digital signals − These are in this section. There are several ways to
map digital data to digital signals.
Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

• NRZ Codes has 1 for High voltage level and 0 for Low voltage level.
• The main behavior of NRZ codes is that the voltage level remains
constant during bit interval.
• The end or start of a bit will not be indicated and it will maintain the
same voltage state, if the value of the previous bit and the value of the
present bit are same.
Two variations in NRZ
NRZ - L (NRZ – LEVEL)
• There is a change in the polarity of the signal, only when the incoming
signal changes from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. It is the same as NRZ, however,
the first bit of the input signal should have a change of polarity.
NRZ - I (NRZ – INVERTED)
• If a 1 occurs at the incoming signal, then there occurs a transition at the
beginning of the bit interval. For a 0 at the incoming signal, there is no
transition at the beginning of the bit interval.
• NRZ codes has a disadvantage that the synchronization of the
transmitter clock with the receiver clock gets completely disturbed, when
there is a string of 1s and 0s. Hence, a separate clock line needs to be
provided.
Bi-phase Encoding

• The signal level is checked twice for every bit time,

both initially and in the middle.
• Hence, the clock rate is double the data transfer rate
and thus the modulation rate is also doubled.
• The clock is taken from the signal itself.
• The bandwidth required for this coding is greater.
Two types of Bi-phase Encoding
• Bi-phase Manchester
• In this type of coding, the transition is done at the middle of the bit-interval.
• The transition for the resultant pulse is from High to Low in the middle of
the interval, for the input bit 1.
• While the transition is from Low to High for the input bit 0.
• Differential Manchester
• In this type of coding, there always occurs a transition in the middle of the
bit interval.
• If there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input
bit is 0.
• If no transition occurs at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit
is 1.
• waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Bi-phase Manchester and Differential
Manchester coding for different digital inputs.
Block Coding

4B/5B Encoding
• In Manchester encoding, to send the data, the clocks with double speed is
required rather than NRZ coding.
• Here, as the name implies, 4 bits of code is mapped with 5 bits, with a
minimum number of 1 bits in the group.
• The clock synchronization problem in NRZ-I encoding is avoided by
assigning an equivalent word of 5 bits in the place of each block of 4
consecutive bits.
• These 5-bit words are predetermined in a dictionary.
• The basic idea of selecting a 5-bit code is that, it should have one leading
0 and it should have no more than two trailing 0s.
• Hence, these words are chosen such that two transactions take place per
block of bits.
8B/6T Encoding
• We have used two voltage levels to send a single bit over a single
signal.
• But if we use more than 3 voltage levels, we can send more bits per
signal.
• For example, if 6 voltage levels are used to represent 8 bits on a single
signal, then such encoding is termed as 8B/6T encoding.
• Hence in this method, we have as many as 729 (3^6) combinations for
signal and 256 (2^8) combinations for bits.
• These are the techniques mostly used for converting digital data into
digital signals by compressing or coding them for reliable transmission
of data.
Pulse Shaping

Inter Symbol Interference

• This is a form of distortion of a signal, in which one or more symbols
interfere with subsequent signals, causing noise or delivering a poor
output.
Causes of ISI
• Multi-path Propagation
• Non-linear frequency in channels
• The ISI is unwanted and should be completely eliminated to get a
clean output. The causes of ISI should also be resolved in order to
lessen its effect.
Correlative Coding
• So far, we’ve discussed that ISI is an unwanted phenomenon and degrades the
signal.
• But the same ISI if used in a controlled manner, is possible to achieve a bit rate of
2W bits per second in a channel of bandwidth W Hertz.
• Such a scheme is called as Correlative Coding or Partial response signaling
schemes.
• Since the amount of ISI is known, it is easy to design the receiver according to
the requirement so as to avoid the effect of ISI on the signal.
• The basic idea of correlative coding is achieved by considering an example of
Duo-binary Signaling.
Duo-binary Signaling
• The name duo-binary means doubling the binary system’s transmission
capability.
Error Probability and Figure-of-merit
• The rate at which data can be communicated is called the data rate.
• The rate at which error occurs in the bits, while transmitting data is called
the Bit Error Rate (BER).
• The probability of the occurrence of BER is the Error Probability.
• The increase in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) decreases the BER, hence the
Error Probability also gets decreased.
• In an Analog receiver, the figure of merit at the detection process can be
termed as the ratio of output SNR to the input SNR.
• A greater value of figure-of-merit will be an advantage.
Digital Modulation Techniques

• Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data security,

quicker system availability with great quality communication.
ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying
• Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of amplitude modulation that
represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave.
• In an ASK system, the binary symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a fixed-
amplitude carrier wave and fixed frequency for a bit duration of T seconds.
• If the signal value is 1 then the carrier signal will be transmitted; otherwise, a
signal value of 0 will be transmitted.
• ASK is also linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, distortions, propagation
conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc.
• Both ASK modulation and demodulation processes are relatively inexpensive.
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
• is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is
transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier signal.

• The technology is used for communication systems such as amateur

radio, caller ID and emergency broadcasts.

• The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK uses a pair of discrete
frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.

• With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is
called the space frequency.
The time domain of an FSK modulated carrier is illustrated below
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
• is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing (modulating) the phase of
a reference signal (the carrier wave).
• The modulation occurs by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a precise time.
• It is widely used for wireless LANs, RFID and Bluetooth communication.
• Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent
digital data.
• PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of binary digits.
• Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits.
• Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase.
• The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the
modulator, determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol
it represents, thus recovering the original data.
• This requires the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received signal to a
reference signal — such a system is termed coherent (and referred to as CPSK).
Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK)
• BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, phase reversal keying, or 2PSK) is the
simplest form of phase shift keying (PSK).
• It uses two phases which are separated by 180° and so can also be
termed 2-PSK.
• It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation points are
positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0° and
180°.
• This modulation is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes the
highest level of noise or distortion to make the demodulator reach an
incorrect decision.
• It is, however, only able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol (as seen in the
figure) and so is unsuitable for high data-rate applications.
• In the presence of an arbitrary phase-shift introduced by the
communications channel, the demodulator is unable to tell which
constellation point is which.
• As a result, the data is often differentially encoded prior to
modulation.
• BPSK is functionally equivalent to 2-QAM modulation.
Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK)
• Sometimes this is known as quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK, or 4-QAM.
(Although the root concepts of QPSK and 4-QAM are different, the
resulting modulated radio waves are exactly the same.)
• QPSK uses four points on the constellation diagram, equi-spaced
around a circle.
• With four phases, QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, shown in the
diagram with Gray coding to minimize the bit error rate (BER) —
sometimes misperceived as twice the BER of BPSK.
Advantage and Disadvantage of QPSK over BPSK
Advantage of QPSK over BPSK:
• QPSK transmits twice the data rate in a given bandwidth compared to
BPSK - at the same BER.
Disadvantage of QPSK over BPSK:
• The engineering penalty that is paid is that QPSK transmitters and
receivers are more complicated than the ones for BPSK.
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
• The phase of the modulated signal is shifted relative to the previous signal
element.
• No reference signal is considered here.
• The signal phase follows the high or low state of the previous element.
• This DPSK technique doesn’t need a reference oscillator.
• It is seen from the above figure that, if the data bit is Low i.e., 0, then
the phase of the signal is not reversed, but continued as it was.

• If the data is a High i.e., 1, then the phase of the signal is reversed, as
with NRZI, invert on 1 (a form of differential encoding).

• If we observe the above waveform, we can say that the High state
represents an M in the modulating signal and the Low state
represents a W in the modulating signal.
DPSK Modulator

• DPSK is a technique of BPSK, in which there is no reference phase

signal.
• Here, the transmitted signal itself can be used as a reference signal.
• DPSK encodes two distinct signals, i.e., the carrier and
the modulating signal with 180° phase shift each.
• The serial data input is given to the XNOR gate and the
output is again fed back to the other input through 1-bit
delay.
• The output of the XNOR gate along with the carrier
signal is given to the balance modulator, to produce the
DPSK modulated signal.
DPSK Demodulator

• In DPSK demodulator, the phase of the reversed bit is compared with the
phase of the previous bit.
• From the below figure, it is evident that the balance modulator is given
the DPSK signal along with 1-bit delay input.
• That signal is made to confine to lower frequencies with the help of LPF.
• Then it is passed to a shaper circuit, which is a comparator or a Schmitt
trigger circuit, to recover the original binary data as the output.
A Block Diagram of DPSK Demodulator
Information Theory
• Information is the source of a communication system, whether it is analog or
digital. Information theory is a mathematical approach to the study of coding
of information along with the quantification, storage, and communication of
information.
• Conditions of Occurrence of Events
• If we consider an event, there are three conditions of occurrence.
• If the event has not occurred, there is a condition of uncertainty.
• If the event has just occurred, there is a condition of surprise.
• If the event has occurred, a time back, there is a condition of having some
information.
• These three events occur at different times. The difference in these conditions
help us gain knowledge on the probabilities of the occurrence of events.
Channel Capacity

• The maximum average mutual information, in an instant of a signaling

interval, when transmitted by a discrete memoryless channel, the
probabilities of the rate of maximum reliable transmission of data, can be
understood as the channel capacity.
• It is denoted by C and is measured in bits per channel use.
Discrete Memoryless Source
• A source from which the data is being emitted at successive intervals,
which is independent of previous values, can be termed as discrete
memoryless source.
• This source is discrete as it is not considered for a continuous time
interval, but at discrete time intervals. This source is memoryless as it is
fresh at each instant of time, without considering the previous values.
Channel Coding Theorem

• The noise present in a channel creates unwanted errors between the input and
the output sequences of a digital communication system.
• The error probability should be very low, nearly ≤ 10-6 for a reliable
communication.
• The channel coding in a communication system, introduces redundancy with a
control, so as to improve the reliability of the system.
• The source coding reduces redundancy to improve the efficiency of the system.
• Channel coding consists of two parts of action.
• Mapping incoming data sequence into a channel input sequence.
• Inverse Mapping the channel output sequence into an output data sequence.
• The final target is that the overall effect of the channel noise should be
minimized.
• The mapping is done by the transmitter, with the help of an encoder, whereas
the inverse mapping is done by the decoder in the receiver.
Error Control Coding

• Noise or Error is the main problem in the signal, which disturbs the
reliability of the communication system. Error control coding is the
coding procedure done to control the occurrences of errors. These
techniques help in Error Detection and Error Correction.
• There are many different error correcting codes depending upon the
mathematical principles applied to them. But, historically, these codes
have been classified into Linear block codes and Convolution codes.
Linear Block Codes
• In the linear block codes, the parity bits and message bits have a linear
combination, which means that the resultant code word is the linear
combination of any two code words.
• Let us consider some blocks of data, which contains k bits in each block.
These bits are mapped with the blocks which has n bits in each block. Here
n is greater than k. The transmitter adds redundant bits which are (n-k) bits.
The ratio k/n is the code rate. It is denoted by r and the value of r is r < 1.
• The (n-k) bits added here, are parity bits. Parity bits help in error detection
and error correction, and also in locating the data. In the data being
transmitted, the left most bits of the code word correspond to the message
bits, and the right most bits of the code word correspond to the parity bits.
Systematic Code
• Any linear block code can be a systematic code, until it is altered. Hence,
an unaltered block code is called as a systematic code.
• Following is the representation of the structure of code word, according
to their allocation.
• If the message is not altered, then it is called as systematic code. It means,
the encryption of the data should not change the data.
Convolution Codes

• So far, in the linear codes, we have discussed that systematic unaltered

code is preferred. Here, the data of total n bits if transmitted, k bits are
message bits and (n-k) bits are parity bits.
• In the process of encoding, the parity bits are subtracted from the whole
data and the message bits are encoded.
• Now, the parity bits are again added and the whole data is again encoded.
• The following figure quotes an example for blocks of data and stream of
data, used for transmission of information.
• The whole process, stated above is tedious which has drawbacks. The
allotment of buffer is a main problem here, when the system is busy.
• This drawback is cleared in convolution codes. Where the whole stream of
data is assigned symbols and then transmitted. As the data is a stream of
bits, there is no need of buffer for storage.
Hamming Codes

• The linearity property of the code word is that the sum of two code words is
also a code word.
• Hamming codes are the type of linear error correcting codes, which can
detect up to two bit errors or they can correct one bit errors without the
detection of uncorrected errors.
• While using the hamming codes, extra parity bits are used to identify a
single bit error.
• To get from one-bit pattern to the other, few bits are to be changed in the
data. Such number of bits can be termed as Hamming distance.
• If the parity has a distance of 2, one-bit flip can be detected. But this can't
be corrected. Also, any two bit flips cannot be detected.
• However, Hamming code is a better procedure than the previously discussed
ones in error detection and correction.
BCH Codes

• BCH codes are named after the inventors Bose, Chaudari and
Hocquenghem.
• During the BCH code design, there is control on the number of symbols
to be corrected and hence multiple bit correction is possible. BCH codes
is a powerful technique in error correcting codes.
• For any positive integers m ≥ 3 and t < 2m-1 there exists a BCH binary
code. Following are the parameters of such code.
• Block length n = 2m-1
• Number of parity-check digits n - k ≤ mt
• Minimum distance dmin ≥ 2t + 1
• This code can be called as t-error-correcting BCH code.
Cyclic Codes

• The cyclic property of code words is that any cyclic-shift of a code word is
also a code word. Cyclic codes follow this cyclic property.
• For a linear code C, if every code word i.e., C = (C1, C2, ...... Cn) from C has
a cyclic right shift of components, it becomes a code word. This shift of
right is equal to n-1 cyclic left shifts.
• Hence, it is invariant under any shift. So, the linear code C, as it is invariant
under any shift, can be called as a Cyclic code.
• Cyclic codes are used for error correction. They are mainly used to correct
double errors and burst errors.
• Hence, these are a few error correcting codes, which are to be
detected at the receiver.
• These codes prevent the errors from getting introduced and disturb
the communication.
• They also prevent the signal from getting tapped by unwanted
receivers.
• There is a class of signaling techniques to achieve this, which are
discussed in the next chapter.
Spread Spectrum Modulation

• A collective class of signaling techniques are employed before

transmitting a signal to provide a secure communication, known as the
Spread Spectrum Modulation. The main advantage of spread spectrum
communication technique is to prevent “interference” whether it is
intentional or unintentional.
• The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere and
cannot be jammed. An intruder with no official access is never allowed to
crack them. Hence, these techniques are used for military purposes.
These spread spectrum signals transmit at low power density and has a
wide spread of signals.
Pseudo-Noise Sequence
• A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation
properties, called as Pseudo-Noise coding sequence is used in spread
spectrum techniques. It is a maximum-length sequence, which is a
type of cyclic code.
Narrow-band and Spread-spectrum Signals
• Both the Narrow band and Spread spectrum signals can be
understood easily by observing their frequency spectrum as shown in
the following figures.
Narrow-band Signals

• The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as

shown in the following frequency spectrum figure.
• Following are some of its features −
• Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.
• Power density is high.
• Spread of energy is low and concentrated.
• Though the features are good, these signals are prone to interference.
Spread Spectrum Signals
• The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed as
shown in the following frequency spectrum figure.
Following are some of its features −

• Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.

• Power density is very low.
• Energy is wide spread.

With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to
interference or jamming. Since multiple users can share the same
spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with one another,
these can be called as multiple access techniques.
FHSS and DSSS / CDMA

• Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth of a magnitude greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
• These are of two types.
1. Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

• This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies
of usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency
hopping. For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time.
• Now, after a while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first
frequency, which was previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.
• The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure
transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each
and every bit of the user data is multiplied by a secret code, called as
chipping code. This chipping code is nothing but the spreading code
which is multiplied with the original message and transmitted. The
receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original message.
Comparison between FHSS and DSSS/CDMA
• Both the spread spectrum techniques are popular for their
characteristics. To have a clear understanding, let us take a look at
their comparisons.
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
• Cross-talk elimination
• Better output with data integrity
• Reduced effect of multipath fading
• Better security
• Reduction in noise
• Co-existence with other systems
• Longer operative distances
• Hard to detect
• Not easy to demodulate/decode
• Difficult to jam the signals
Although spread spectrum techniques were originally designed for military
uses, they are now being used widely for commercial purpose.