Vitamins

Prof. Dr. Abdulsamie Hassan Alta’ee

 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
At the end of lecture, students should be able to:
•Identify vitamins as micronutrients
•Classify vitamins on basis of solubility
•Describe general properties of water and lipid
soluble vitamins in relation to sources, RDA,
digestion, absorption, transport in blood, storage,
excretion, function, toxicity, and deficiency states.
 
 I. Overview

• Vitamins are chemically unrelated organic compounds

that cannot be synthesized in adequate quantities by
humans and, therefore, must be supplied by the diet.
• Nine vitamins (folic acid, cobalamin, ascorbic acid,
pyridoxine, thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, biotin, and
pantothenic acid) are classified as water-soluble,
whereas four vitamins (A, D, K, and E) are termed fat-
soluble (Figure 28.1).
• Vitamins are required to perform specific cellular
functions, for example, many of the water-soluble
vitamins are precursors of coenzymes for the enzymes
of intermediary metabolism.
• In contrast to the water-soluble vitamins, only
one fat soluble vitamin (vitamin K) has a
coenzyme function. These vitamins are
released, absorbed, and transported with the fat
of the diet.
• They are not readily excreted in the urine, and
significant quantities are stored in the liver and
adipose tissue.
• In fact, consumption of vitamins A and D in
excess of the recommended dietary allowances
(RDA) can lead to accumulation of toxic
quantities of these compounds.
II. Folic Acid (Vitamin B9)
• Folic acid (or folate), which plays a key role in one-
carbon metabolism, is essential for the biosynthesis of
several compounds.
• Folic acid deficiency is probably the most common
vitamin deficiency in the United States, particularly
among pregnant women and alcoholics.
A. Function of folic acid
• Tetrahydrofolate receives one-carbon fragments from
donors such as serine, glycine, and histidine and
transfers them to intermediates in the synthesis of amino
acids, purines, and thymidine monophosphate (TMP).
B. Nutritional Anemias
• Anemia is a condition in which the blood
has a lower than normal concentration of
hemoglobin, which results in a reduced
ability to transport oxygen.
• Nutritional anemias—those caused by
inadequate intake of one or more essential
nutrients—can be classified according to
the size of the red blood cells or mean
corpuscular volume observed in the
individual (Figure 28.2).
• Microcytic anemia, caused by lack of iron, is the
most common form of nutritional anemia.
• The second major category of nutritional
anemia, macrocytic, results from a deficiency in
folic acid or vitamin B12.
[Note: These macrocytic anemias are commonly
called megaloblastic because a deficiency of
folic acid or vitamin B12 causes accumulation of
large, immature red cell precursors, known as
megaloblasts, in the bone marrow and the
blood.]
• Figure 28.2 Classification of
nutritional anemias by cell
size. The normal mean
corpuscular volume (MCV) for
people older than age 18 is
between 80 and 100 µm3.
1. Folate and anemia:
Inadequate serum levels of folate can be caused by:
– increased demand (for example, pregnancy and lactation),
– poor absorption caused by pathology of the small intestine, alcoholism, or
– treatment with drugs that are dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors, for
example, methotrexate (Figure 28.3).
– A folate-free diet can cause a deficiency within a few weeks.

Figure 28.3 Inhibition of tetrahydrofolate synthesis by sulfonamides and trimethoprim.

A primary result of folic acid
deficiency is megaloblastic
anemia (Figure 28.4), caused
by diminished synthesis of
purines and TMP, which leads
to an inability of cells to make
DNA and, therefore, they
cannot divide.
[Note: It is important to
evaluate the cause of the
megaloblastic anemia prior to
instituting therapy, because
vitamin B12 deficiency
indirectly causes symptoms of
this disorder.]
Figure 28.4 Bone marrow
histology in normal and
folate-deficient individuals.
2. Folate and neural tube defects in the fetus:
• Spina bifida and anencephaly, the most
common neural tube defects, affect
approximately 4,000 pregnancies in the United
State annually.
• Folic acid supplementation before conception
and during the first trimester has been shown
to significantly reduce the defects.
• Therefore, all women of childbearing age are
advised to consume 0.4 mg/day of folic acid to
reduce the risk of having a pregnancy affected
by neural tube defects.
Spina Bifida and Anencephaly
• Adequate folate nutrition must occur at the time of
conception because critical folate-dependent development
occurs in the first weeks of fetal life—at a time when many
women are not yet aware of their pregnancy.

• The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has authorized the

addition of folic acid to enriched grain products, resulting in
a dietary supplementation of about 0.1 mg/day. It is
estimated that this supplementation will allow approximately
50% of all reproductive-aged women to receive 0.4 mg of
folate from all sources.

• However, there is an association of high-dose

supplementation with folic acid (>0.8 mg/day) and an
increased risk of cancer. Thus, supplementation is not
recommended for most middle-aged or older adults.
 E. Sources of Folic Acid
Fresh green vegetables, liver, whole grains, meat and legumes.

F. Recommended Dietary Allowance of Folic

Acid
Children -300 μg/day = 0.3 mg/day.
Adults-400 μg/day = 0.4 mg/day.
Pregnancy and lactation=800 μg/day= 0.8 mg/day.
III. Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)
• Vitamin B12 is required in humans for two
essential enzymatic reactions: the
remethylation of homocysteine to methionine
and the isomerization of methylmalonyl
coenzyme A (CoA) that is produced during
the degradation of some amino acids, and
fatty acids with odd numbers of carbon
atoms (Figure 28.5).
• When the vitamin is deficient, abnormal fatty
acids accumulate and become incorporated
into cell membranes, including those of the
nervous system. This may account for some
of the neurologic manifestations of vitamin
B12 deficiency.
Figure 28.5 Reactions requiring coenzyme forms of vitamin B12.
A. Structure of cobalamin and its coenzyme forms
• Cobalamin contains a corrin ring system that differs from
the porphyrins in that two of the pyrrole rings are linked
directly rather than through a methene bridge.
• Cobalt is held in the center of the corrin ring by four
coordination bonds from the nitrogens of the pyrrole
groups.
• The remaining coordination bonds of the cobalt are with
the nitrogen of 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole and with
cyanide in commercial preparations of the vitamin in the
form of cyanocobalamin (Figure 28.6).
• The coenzyme forms of cobalamin are 5′-
deoxyadenosylcobalamin, in which cyanide is replaced
with 5′-deoxyadenosine (forming an unusual carbon–
cobalt bond), and methylcobalamin, in which cyanide is
replaced by a methyl group (see Figure 28.6).
• Figure 28.6 Structure of vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) and its
coenzyme forms (methylcobalamin and 5′-deoxyadenosyl-
cobalamin).
B. Distribution of Cobalamin
• Vitamin B12 is synthesized only by
microorganisms; it is not present in plants.
• Animals obtain the vitamin preformed from
their natural bacterial flora or by eating
foods derived from other animals.
• Cobalamin is present in appreciable
amounts in liver, whole milk, eggs,
oysters, fresh shrimp, and chicken.
Sources of Vitamin B12
C. Folate trap hypothesis

• The effects of cobalamin deficiency are most pronounced

in rapidly dividing cells, such as the erythropoietic tissue
of bone marrow and the mucosal cells of the intestine.
• Such tissues need both the N5-N10-methylene and N10-
formyl forms of tetrahydrofolate for the synthesis of
nucleotides required for DNA replication.
• However, in vitamin B12 deficiency, the utilization of the
N5-methyl form of tetrahydrofolate is impaired. Because
the methylated form cannot be converted directly to other
forms of tetrahydrofolate, folate is trapped in the N5-
methyl form, which accumulates.
• The levels of the other forms decrease. Thus, cobalamin
deficiency is hypothesized to lead to a deficiency of the
tetrahydrofolate forms needed in purine and TMP
synthesis, resulting in the symptoms of megaloblastic
anemia.
D. Clinical indications for vitamin B12
• In contrast to other water-soluble vitamins,
significant amounts (4–5 mg) of vitamin
B12 are stored in the body.
• As a result, it may take several years for
the clinical symptoms of B12 deficiency to
develop in individuals who have had a
partial or total gastrectomy (who,
therefore, become intrinsic factor-deficient,
and can no longer absorb the vitamin.
 Vitamin B12 Recommended Daily Intake
• If you eat meat, fish or dairy foods, you should be able to
get enough vitamin B12 from your diet.
1. Pernicious Anemia
• Vitamin B12 deficiency is rarely a result of an absence
of the vitamin in the diet.
• It is much more common to find deficiencies in patients
who fail to absorb the vitamin from the intestine,
resulting in pernicious anemia.
• The disease is most commonly a result of an
autoimmune destruction of the gastric parietal cells that
are responsible for the synthesis of a glycoprotein
called intrinsic factor.
• Normally, vitamin B12 obtained from the diet binds to
intrinsic factor in the intestine (Figure 28.7). The
cobalamin–intrinsic factor complex travels through the
gut and eventually binds to specific receptors on the
surface of mucosal cells of the ileum.
• The bound cobalamin is transported into the mucosal cell
and, subsequently, into the general circulation, where it is
carried by B12-binding proteins.
• Lack of intrinsic factor prevents the absorption of vitamin
B12, resulting in pernicious anemia.
• Patients with cobalamin deficiency are usually anemic, but
later in the development of the disease they show
neuropsychiatric symptoms.
• However, central nervous system (CNS) symptoms may
occur in the absence of anemia.
• The CNS effects are irreversible and occur by mechanisms
that appear to be different from those described for
megaloblastic anemia.
• The disease is treated by giving high-dose B12 orally, or
intramuscular injection of cyanocobalamin. Therapy must be
continued throughout the lives of patients with pernicious
anemia.
• Folic acid can partially reverse the
hematologic abnormalities of B12
deficiency and, therefore, can mask a
cobalamin deficiency. Thus, therapy of
megaloblastic anemia is often initiated with
folic acid and vitamin B12 until the cause
of the anemia can be determined.
• Deficiency of vitamin B12 can be
measured by the level of methylmalonic
acid in blood, which is elevated in
individuals with low intake or decreased
absorption of the vitamin.

Figure 28.7 Absorption of vitamin

B12. IF = intrinsic factor.