Chapter 1

PARAMETER AND
STATISTIC
LECTURE 10 APRIL 2023 SGDP2013
DZAHIR KASA, PHD.
Parameter vs Statistic
A parameter is a number describing a whole population (e.g., population mean)
statistic is a number describing a sample (e.g., sample mean).
The goal of quantitative research is to understand characteristics of populations by finding
parameters.
In practice, it’s often too difficult, time-consuming or unfeasible to collect data from every
member of a population. Instead, data is collected from samples.
With inferential statistics, we can use sample statistics to make educated guesses about
population parameters.
Examples of statistics vs parameters
Sample statistic Population parameter
Proportion of 2000 randomly Proportion of all US residents that
sampled participants that support support the death penalty.
the death penalty.
Median income of 850 college Median income of all college
students in Boston and Wellesley. students in Massachusetts.
Standard deviation of weights of Standard deviation of weights of all
avocados from one farm. avocados in the region.
Mean screen time of 3000 high Mean screen time of all high school
school students in India. students in India.
Symbols for statistics vs parameters
Sample statistic Population parameter

Proportion p̂ (called “p-hat”) P
Mean x̄ (called “x-bar”) μ (Greek letter “mu”)
Standard deviation s (Latin letter “s”) σ (Greek letter “sigma”)
Variance s2 σ2
DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
In research, variables are any characteristics that can take on different values, such as height,
age, temperature, or test scores.
Researchers often manipulate or measure independent and dependent variables in studies to
test cause-and-effect relationships.
The independent variable is the cause.
The dependent variable is the effect.

Example: Independent and dependent variables. You design a study to test whether changes in
room temperature have an effect on math test scores.
Your independent variable is the temperature of the room. You vary the room temperature by
making it cooler for half the participants, and warmer for the other half.
Your dependent variable is math test scores. You measure the math skills of all participants
using a standardized test and check whether they differ based on room temperature.
An independent variable is the variable you manipulate or vary in an experimental study to
explore its effects. It’s called “independent” because it’s not influenced by any other variables in
the study.
Independent variables are also called:
Explanatory variables (they explain an event or outcome)
Predictor variables (they can be used to predict the value of a dependent variable)
Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of a regression equation).
Simple linear regression formula
The formula for a simple linear regression is:
y is the predicted value of the dependent variable (y) for any given value of the independent variable (x).
B0 is the intercept, the predicted value of y when the x is 0.
B1 is the regression coefficient – how much we expect y to change as x increases.
x is the independent variable ( the variable we expect is influencing y).
e is the error of the estimate, or how much variation there is in our estimate of the regression coefficient.
Types of independent variables
Experimental independent variables can be directly manipulated by researchers.

Subject variables cannot be manipulated by researchers, but they can be used to group
research subjects categorically.
What is a dependent variable?
A dependent variable is the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable
manipulation.
It’s the outcome you’re interested in measuring, and it “depends” on your independent variable.
In statistics, dependent variables are also called:
Response variables (they respond to a change in another variable)
Outcome variables (they represent the outcome you want to measure)
Left-hand-side variables (they appear on the left-hand side of a regression equation)
Here are some examples of research questions and corresponding independent and dependent variables.
Research question Independent variable Dependent variable(s)

Do tomatoes grow fastest under •Type of light the tomato plant is •The rate of growth of the tomato
fluorescent, incandescent, or grown under plant
natural light?
What is the effect of intermittent •Presence or absence of •Blood sugar levels
fasting on blood sugar levels? intermittent fasting
Is medical marijuana effective for •Presence or absence of medical •Frequency of pain
pain reduction in people with marijuana use •Intensity of pain
chronic pain?
To what extent does remote •Type of work environment •Job satisfaction self-reports
working increase job satisfaction? (remote or in office)
Four Different Levels of Measurement
In descending order of precision, the four different levels of measurement are:
Nominal–Latin for name only (Republican, Democrat, Green, Libertarian)
Ordinal–Think ordered levels or ranks (small–8oz, medium–12oz, large–32oz)
Interval–Equal intervals among levels (1 dollar to 2 dollars is the same interval as 88 dollars to
89 dollars)
Ratio–Let the “o” in ratio remind you of a zero in the scale (Day 0, day 1, day 2, day 3, …)
Nominal level Examples of nominal
scales
You can categorize your data by labelling them •City of birth
in mutually exclusive groups, but there is no •Gender
order between the categories. •Ethnicity
•Car brands
•Marital status
Ordinal level Examples of ordinal
scales
You can categorize and rank your data in an •Top 5 Olympic
order, but you cannot say anything about the medallists
intervals between the rankings. •Language ability (e.g.,
Although you can rank the top 5 Olympic beginner, intermediate,
medallists, this scale does not tell you how fluent)
close or far apart they are in number of wins. •Likert-type questions
(e.g., very dissatisfied to
very satisfied)
Interval level Examples of interval
scales
You can categorize, rank, and infer equal •Test scores (e.g., IQ or
intervals between neighboring data points, exams)
but there is no true zero point. •Personality inventories
The difference between any two adjacent •Temperature in
temperatures is the same: one degree. But Fahrenheit or Celsius
zero degrees is defined differently depending
on the scale – it doesn’t mean an absolute
absence of temperature.
The same is true for test scores and
personality inventories. A zero on a test is
arbitrary; it does not mean that the test-taker
has an absolute lack of the trait being
measured.
Ratio level Examples of ratio scales
You can categorize, rank, and infer equal •Height
intervals between neighboring data points, •Age
and there is a true zero point. •Weight
A true zero means there is an absence of the •Temperature in Kelvin
variable of interest. In ratio scales, zero does
mean an absolute lack of the variable.
For example, in the Kelvin temperature scale,
there are no negative degrees of temperature
– zero means an absolute lack of thermal
energy.
END.

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PARAMETER AND

Sample statistic Population parameter

The dependent variable is the effect.

Experimental independent variables can be directly manipulated by researchers.

Research question Independent variable Dependent variable(s)

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