Logic and Set Theory

LOGIC AND SET THEORY
THE LOGICAL
EQUIVALENCE,QUANTEFIERS
AND DIRECT PROOF.
By: RIVERA, Christine Joy Mabana
And REMOTO, Gilbert Llamera
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
▪ The Students should be able to identify the LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

▪ The QUANTEFIERS
▪ And the DIRECT PROOF.
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
WARNING! KEEP YOUR MOUTH CLOSE UNLESS
YOU HAVE THE PERMISION TO SPEAK.
What is logical equivalence?
Logical equivalence is the condition of equality that exists between two
statements or sentences in propositional logic or Boolean algebra. The
relationship between the two statements translates verbally into "if and only if."
In mathematics, logical equivalence is typically symbolized by a double arrow
(⟺ or ⟷) or triple lines (≡). The double arrow is sometimes referred to as an
(IIF) function.
This expression provides an example of logical equivalence between two simple

statements:
P∨ Q ⟺ Q ∨ P
THE LOGICAL OPERATOR SYMBOLS:
EXAMPLE:
And the easiest way to show equivalence is to create a truth table and see if the
columns are identical, as the example below nicely demonstrates;
Logical Equivalence Laws
Below is a list of important equivalences laws, sometimes called the law of the
algebra of propositions, that we will use throughout this course.
ANOTHER EXAMPLE: (STATEMENT FORM)
For example, consider the following statement, “It is not true that
KYLE is a teacher and KAREL is an accountant.”
Therefore, an equivalent statement would be of the form.
Hence, we would say, KYLE is not a teacher or KAREL is not an

accountant.
QUANTIFIERS
WHAT IS QUANTEFIERS?
Quantifiers are words that refer to quantities (“some” or “all”) and tell for
how many elements a given predicate is true. There are Two types of
QUANTIFIERS.
TWO TTYPES OF QUANTIFIERS
Universal quantifier: ꓯ Existential quantifier: Ǝ

“for all”. “there exists”.
Example: ꓯ human beings x, x is Example: Ǝ Student in SCTI 215.

• If Ǝ a person p such that p is a
mortal.
student in SCTI 215,
• If H is the set of all human beings,
(Ǝp ϵ P) , person p such that p is a
student in SCTI 215 where P is the set
(ꓯ x ϵ H) , x is mortal, of all people.
Therefore: “All human beings are “There is a student in SCTI 215”

mortal”
TWO TYPES OF QUANTIFIER
UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER: is the proposition that a property is true for all the
values of a variable in a particular domain, sometimes called the domain of
discourse or the universe of discourse.
To determine if it’s a universal quantifier,

you want to look for words like all, each, every, any.
TWO TYPES OF QUANTIFIER
Existential quantifier is the proposition that a property is true for some value
in a particular domain.
Examples Of Quantifiers In Use
Suppose we have two predicate variables x and y, where the domain for x is F = {foxes} and y
has the domain S = {snails}, where P(x,y) is “Foxes are faster than Snails.”
▪ Now we wish to write the following statement using logical symbolism and quantifiers.
And this means that the truth values of
quantified statements can be summarized as
follows:
DIRECT PROOF
WHAT IS DIRECT PROOF
A direct proof is a sequence of statements which are either givens or deductions from
previous statements, and whose last statement is the conclusion to be proved.
Alright, so now it’s time to look at
some examples of direct proofs.
Example #1 – Valid Claim

Example #2 – Valid Claim
Let’s look at another example.
Example #3 – Invalid Claim
Prove by counterexample.
A counterexample is just one example showing the claim to be false.

While there may be many examples to choose from, all you need is one.
REFERENCES:
▪ https://study.com/learn/lesson
▪ https://www.javatpoint.com/propositional-logic-in-artificial-intelligence
▪ https://www.academia.edu/21763108/Notes_on_logic_and_set_theory
▪ https://
www.google.com/search?q=simple+statement+of+quantifier&source=lmns&bih=600&biw=1366&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2
ahUKEwjXkMmo3rr9AhWvjlYBHbyOCzYQ0pQJKAB6BAgBEAI
▪ https://
www.google.com/search?q=quantifier+notation+examples&sxsrf=AJOqlzUHH1VbsTs2faZ4TCMbfZBwgzU4Uw:167767
4085929&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjl_sL_3rr9AhUF03MBHYLRDcwQ0pQJegQIBhAC&biw=1366&
bih=600&dpr=1#imgrc=HdhGD6_5rpRbuM
▪ https://sites.millersville.edu/bikenaga/math-proof/quantifiers/quantifiers.pdf
▪ https://calcworkshop.com/logic/predicate-logic/

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LOGIC AND SET THEORY

▪ The Students should be able to identify the LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

This expression provides an example of logical equivalence between two simple

Therefore, an equivalent statement would be of the form.

Hence, we would say, KYLE is not a teacher or KAREL is not an

Universal quantifier: ꓯ Existential quantifier: Ǝ

Example: ꓯ human beings x, x is Example: Ǝ Student in SCTI 215.

Therefore: “All human beings are “There is a student in SCTI 215”

To determine if it’s a universal quantifier,

Example #1 – Valid Claim

A counterexample is just one example showing the claim to be false.

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