Programme Name: B.

Tech Semester: 3rd

Course Code:ME-13111 Course Name:

QUALITY
ENGINEERING

Course Coordinator : Dr M K Khurana

Dr M K Khurana, B Tech in Mechanical Engineering from Thapar
Institute of Engg, Patiala in 1982 and joined Bharat Pumps &
Compressors Ltd Naini, Allahabad.
MBA from Allahabad University in 1988. After working for more
than 14 years he switched to Academics and joined MNNIT
Allahabad.

Did M.E (CAD/CAM) and Ph D degree in Supply Chain

Management, presently working as Professor ( Mechanical
Engineering).
 Introduction
1. The rapidly increasing global competition over the past decade has
led to the emergence of new scenarios for most of the industries.

2. The industries are now associated with rapid technological changes

and product variety proliferation in order to remain competitive.

3. The competitiveness of a company is mostly dependent on its ability

to perform well in dimensions such as cost, quality, delivery,
dependability and speed, innovation and flexibility to adapt itself to
variations in demand.

4.Today, quality and value are, first and above all, givens, and the
customer expects them.

5. Quality in the successful organization is fully integrated into all of the

business processes and is an extension of everything else that has to
happen along the path to success.
 QUALITY
▪ Dictionary has many definitions:

“Essential characteristic,” “Superior” etc.

Oxford American Dictionary “A degree or level of Excellence”

• Quality is fitness for use (JURAN)

• Quality is conformance to requirements (CROSBY)  

• The efficient production of the quality that the market expects

(DEMING)

• Quality is what the customer says, it is (FEIGENBAUM)

• Quality is the loss that a product costs to the society
after being shipped to the customer (TAGUCHI)
• The totality of features and characteristics of a
product or services that bear on its ability to satisfy
stated or implied needs of the customers (ASQC)
• A quality system is the agreed on company wide and
plant wide operating work structure, documented in
effective, integrated,  technical and managerial
procedures for guiding the co-coordinated actions of
people, the machines, or the information of
company in the best and most practical ways to
assume customer quality satisfaction and
economical costs of quality. (FEIGENBAUM)
American Society of Quality Control (ASQC) defines Quality
as:
The totality of features and characteristics of a product or services that bear on
its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs of the customers.

ISO has defines Quality as:

Degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements”.

Degree: refers to a level to which a product or service satisfies. So, depending

upon the level of satisfaction, a product may be termed as excellent, good or
poor quality product.

Inherent characteristics: those features that are a part of the product and are
responsible to achieve satisfaction.

Requirements: refer to the needs of customer, needs of organization & those

of other interested parties (e.g. regulatory bodies, suppliers, employees,
community & environment).
 The Meaning of Quality
The Meaning of Quality

Producer’s Perspective Consumer’s Perspective

Quality of Conformance Quality of Design

Production • Conformance to • Quality characteristics Marketing

specifications
• Cost • Price

Fitness for
Figure 14.1 Consumer Use
• What is a customer?
Anyone who is impacted by the product or process delivered by an
organization.
External Customer: The end user as well as intermediate
processors. Other external customers may not be purchasers but
may have some connection with the product.
Internal Customer: Other divisions of the company that receive
the processed product.

• “A Customer’s impression of quality begins with the initial

contact with the company and continues through the life of the
product.”

– Customers look to the total package - sales, service during the

sale, packaging, delivery and service after the sale.
Why the Quality becoming a cardinal priority for organizations ?

• Competition – Today’s market demand high quality products at low

cost. So having `high quality’ reputation is not enough. Internal cost
of maintaining the reputation should be less.
• Changing customer – The new customer is not only commanding
priority based on volume but is more demanding about the “Quality
System”.
• Changing product mix – The shift from low volume, high price to
high volume, low price have resulted in a need to reduce the
internal cost of poor quality.
• Product complexity – As systems have become more complex, the
reliability requirements for suppliers of components have become
more stringent.
• Higher levels of customer satisfaction – Higher customers
expectations are getting executed by increasing competition.
 The following definitions look at quality from a management,
quality assurance, product, marketing, manufacturing and
economic point of view.
 
1. Fit for Purpose
• Perhaps the most useful business definition of quality is "fit for
purpose". This is useful because it's applicable to any process,
service or product. However, it can be difficult to measure. 

It's easy to think of examples of fit for purpose. If the purpose of

an aircraft is to be fast, efficient, comfortable and safe — then
that's the definition of a quality aircraft. 
Fit for purpose is a practical and flexible definition that's the
cornerstone of most quality management initiatives. 
2. Conformance to Requirements
• Quality is often measured in terms of conformance to requirements.
For example, business users define requirements for a sales system.
The sales system is developed and its quality is measured against the
requirements. 

This definition is ideal for quality assurance teams that need to

validate processes, systems, services and product quality.

The problem with this definition is that requirements may offer a

biased and subjective view of quality. In many cases, requirements
represent little more than the ideas of business stakeholders.
• 3. Quality Is Cost
Traditionally, product quality was thought of in terms of material
costs. A watch that's made of gold is higher quality than a watch
made of plastic. High quality sheets have a thread count of 180 or
higher. High quality hand moisturizer has a high Shea butter content. 
 This type of quality definition works well for some
simple products. However, it's inapplicable to
technology, art and culture. The history of technology
is filled with cheaper products that have higher
quality. 
• Quality is Price
Quality is an essential part of economic models.
Economists have developed various definitions of
quality. 
Economists tend to judge quality by the price 
consumers are willing to pay. 

According to economists, if something is expensive,

it's high quality. 
5. Quality is a Standard

• The manufacturing industry was the first to take a hard, scientific

look at quality. Manufacturers are concerned both with the quality
of products and the quality of the manufacturing process itself. 
If you're manufacturing one million cars a month you can't afford
to produce sub-standard products that will be returned by your
customers. You can't afford product liability issues that result from
sub-standard product. You also can't afford inefficient processes. 
Manufacturers use standards and continual process improvement
methodologies to improve both processes and product quality.
They view quality in terms of measurements and statistics. 

• Quality Definition: Quality is a Standard 

Quality is compliance to best known standards, processes and
specifications. 
6. Quality is Value for Performance

• Marketing teams look for practical definitions of quality that

explain why consumers and businesses buy. 

One of the best ways to model purchasing behavior is with the

following definition of quality.

  According to estimates, McDonald's sells 550 million Big Macs

each year in the US alone. Obviously, customers see value in
the Big Mac. It's not always practical to measure quality by the
yardstick of a 3-star restaurant. 
According to this definition a $3 disposable tooth brush may be
higher quality than a $3000 golden tooth brush because it
offers more value. 
7. Quality is An Experience
As economies have shifted from a product to a
service focus marketers have sought definitions of
quality that explain why customers purchase
services. 

Quality is a satisfying experience. 

You don't go to a fine French restaurant for the

quality of food (product) alone. You go for the end-
to-end experience from calling to make the
reservation to paying the check and walking out the
door. Customers judge fine dining by aesthetics,
service, atmosphere, decor, taste, smell, etc. 
 Value-based Approach of Quality
Dimensions of Product Quality

1.Manufacturing Dimensions

Performance
Basic operating characteristics of a product. (will the product do the
intended job?)

Features
“Extra” items ad(what does the product do?)ded to basic features, such as
a music system or a special interiors in a car.
Reliability
Probability that a product will operate properly within an expected
time frame. (how often the product fails?)
Conformance
Degree to which a product meets pre–established standards.
Durability
How long product lasts before replacement.
• As prescribed by Garvin, the eight dimensions of quality
are:
•      Performance          (will the product do the intended
job?)
•      Reliability                (how often the product fails?)
•      Durability                 (how long the product lasts?)
•      Serviceability          (how easy is to repair the product?)
•      Aesthetics              (what does the product look like?)
•      Features                 (what does the product do?)
•      Perceived quality   (what is the reputation of a
company or its products?)
• Conformance to Standards ( Is the product made
exactly as the designer intended?)
2.Services Dimensions

▪ Time and timeliness

▪ how long must a customer wait for service, and is it completed on
time?
▪ Completeness:
▪ is everything customer asked for provided?
▪ Courtesy:
▪ how are customers treated by employees?
▪ Consistency
▪ is same level of service provided to each customer each time?
▪ Accessibility and convenience
▪ how easy is it to obtain service?
▪ Accuracy
▪ is service correctly performed every time?
▪ Responsiveness
▪ how well does company react to unusual situations?
 Value-based Approach of Quality

1.Manufacturing Dimensions

Performance
Basic operating characteristics of a product.
Features
“Extra” items added to basic features, such as a music system or
a special interiors in a car.
Reliability
Probability that a product will operate properly within an
expected time frame.
Conformance
Degree to which a product meets pre–established standards.
( Is the product made exactly as the designer intended?)

Durability
How long product lasts before replacement.
Aesthetics
How a product looks, feels, sounds, smells or tastes.
Safety
Assurance that customer will not suffer injury or harm from a
product.

Perceived quality   (what is the reputation of a company or its

products?)
2. Services Dimensions

▪ Time and timeliness

▪ how long must a customer wait for service, and is it completed on
time?
▪ Completeness:
▪ is everything customer asked for provided?
▪ Courtesy:
▪ how are customers treated by employees?
▪ Consistency
▪ is same level of service provided to each customer each time?
▪ Accessibility and convenience
▪ how easy is it to obtain service?
▪ Accuracy
▪ is service correctly performed every time?
▪ Responsiveness
▪ how well does company react to unusual situations?
 Three Aspects of Quality
The three aspects of quality and their linkages with
each other have been depicted in the figure below:
1. Quality of Design: Consumer's Perspective
The product must be designed to meet the requirement
of the customer. The product must be designed right
first time and every time and while designing all aspects
of customer expectations must be incorporated into the
product. The factors need to consider while designing
the product are:
– Type of product
–      Cost
–      Profit policy of the company
–      Demand
–      Availability of the parts
2. Quality of Conformance: Manufacturer's Perspective
The product must be manufactured exactly as designed.

The activities involved at this stage include: defect

finding, defect prevention, defect analysis, and
rectification. 

The difficulties encountered at the manufacturing stage

must be conveyed to the designers for modification in
design, if any.

The two-way communication between designer and

manufacturing may help to improve the quality of the
product.
3. Quality of Performance
The product must function as per the
expectations of the customer. The two way
communication between designers and
customer is the key to have a quality product.
Quality means fitness for use.
 Costs of Quality
A) Costs of Achieving B) Costs of Poor Quality
Good Quality

▪ Prevention costs ▪ Internal failure costs

▪ Appraisal costs
▪ External failure costs
 A. Cost of Achieving Good Quality

1.Prevention Costs
• Quality planning costs • Training costs
– costs of developing and – costs of developing and
implementing quality putting on quality training
management program programs for employees
• Product-design costs and management
– costs of designing
products with quality • Information costs
characteristics – costs of acquiring
• Process costs and maintaining data
– costs expended to make related to quality, and
sure productive process development and
conforms to quality analysis of reports on
specifications quality performance
 Cost of Achieving Good Quality (Cont’d)

2. Appraisal Costs
• Inspection and Testing Costs
– costs of testing and inspecting materials, parts, and
product at various stages and at end of process.
• Test Equipment Costs
– costs of maintaining equipment used in testing quality
characteristics of products.
• Operator Costs
– costs of time spent by operators to gather data for testing
product quality, to make equipment adjustments to
maintain quality.
 B. Cost of Poor Quality

1. Internal Failure Costs

• Scrap costs • Process downtime
– costs of poor-quality costs
products that must be – costs of shutting down
discarded, including labor, productive process to fix
material, and indirect costs problem
• Rework costs • Price-downgrading
– costs of fixing defective costs
products to conform to
quality specifications – costs of discounting
• Process failure costs poor-quality products—
that is, selling products
– costs of determining why
production process is as “seconds”
producing poor-quality
products
 Cost of Poor Quality (Cont’d)

2. External Failure Costs

• Customer complaint costs • Product liability
– costs of investigating and costs
satisfactorily responding to a
customer complaint – litigation costs
resulting from a poor-quality resulting from
product product liability and
• Product return costs customer injury
– costs of handling and • Lost sales costs
replacing poor-quality – costs incurred
products returned by
customer because customers
are dissatisfied with
• Warranty claims costs poor-quality products
– costs of complying with and do not make
product warranties additional purchases
 Cost of Quality
The equation " Cost of Quality (COQ) " allows to quantify the impact
of Poor Quality.

It is used as a monitoring tool to track costs for inspection, internal

errors, external errors, and prevention.
Cost of Non-Conformance
E: External Failure Costs
I: Internal Failure Costs
A: Appraisal Costs
Cost of Conformance
P: Prevention Costs
S: Sales
 COQ = Prevention Cost + Appraisal Cost + Internal Failure Cost + External Failure Cost

Cost of Conformance                    Cost of Non-Conformance

It has been seen that as the prevention efforts are increased, the costs
for inspection, internal failures and external failures drop.
Quality Cost Management shows how increased Prevention Costs
reduce the Total Quality Costs.
Traditional View of Quality Costs
 Modern/Contemporary View of Quality Costs
Normal Cost of Quality Distribution when Quality System is NOT in Place
Optimum Cost of Quality Distribution when Quality System is in
Place
Quality Management
 History of Quality Management
• When top managers in USA focused on marketing, production
quantity and financial performance, Japanese managers improved
quality at an unprecedented rate.
• Market started preferring Japanese products and American
companies suffered immensely.
• America woke up to the quality revolution in early 1980s. Ford Motor
Company consulted Dr. Deming to help transform its operations.
(By then, 80-year-old Deming was virtually unknown in USA.
Whereas Japanese government had instituted The Deming Prize for
Quality in 1950.)
• Managers started to realize that “Quality of Management” is more
important than “Management of Quality.”
• This was the birth of the term Total Quality Management (TQM)
– Integration of quality principles into organization’s management
systems.
 Total Quality Management
• Total - made up of the whole or complete
• Quality - degree of excellence a product or
service provides
• Management - act, art or manner of planning,
controlling, directing,….

Therefore, TQM is the art of managing the whole

to achieve excellence.
 Total Quality Management (Cont’d)

• Total Quality Management (TQ, QM or TQM) is

sweeping “culture change” efforts to position a
company for greater customer satisfaction, profitability
and competitiveness.
• TQM may be defined as managing the entire
organization so that it excels on all dimensions of
products and services that are important to the
customer.
• TQM is a management philosophy that seeks to
integrate all organizational functions (marketing,
finance, design engineering, production and customer
service etc.) to focus on meeting customer needs and
organizational objectives.
 Total Quality :
Transforming an Organization
 Principles of TQM

The key principles of TQM are as following:

1. Management Commitment
– Plan (drive, direct)
– Do (deploy, support, participate)
– Check (review)
– Act (recognize, communicate, revise)
2. Employee Empowerment
– Training
– Suggestion scheme
– Measurement and recognition
– Excellence teams
3. Fact Based Decision Making
– SPC (statistical process control)
– DOE, Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
– Statistical tools
– TOPS ( team-oriented problem solving)
4. Continuous Improvement
– focus on CONQ (cost of Non Quality)
– Excellence teams
– Cross-functional process management
– Attain, maintain, improve standards
5. Customer Focus
– Supplier partnership
– Service relationship with internal customers
– Never compromise quality
– Customer driven standards
Traditional Approach Vs Continuous Improvement

Traditional Approach Continuous Improvement

• Market-share focus • Customer focus
• Individuals • Cross-functional teams
• Focus on ‘who” and “why” • Focus on “what” and “how”
• Short-term focus • Long-term focus
• Status quo focus • Continuous improvement
• Product focus • Process improvement focus
• Innovation • Incremental improvements
• Fire fighting • Problem solving
 Ways of Improving Quality

1. Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle (PDSA)

– Also called the Deming Wheel after originator
– Circular, never ending problem solving process
2. Kaizen
• Kai = Change
• Zen = For the better
kaizen = Continuous Improvement

3. Benchmarking Process

4. Seven Tools of Quality Control

– Tools typically taught to problem solving teams
 1. Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle (PDSA)
• Plan
– Evaluate current process
– Collect procedures, data, identify
problems
– Develop an improvement plan,
performance objectives
• Do
– Implement the plan – trial basis
• Study
– Collect data and evaluate against Deming Wheel
objectives
• Act
– Communicate the results from trial
– If successful, implement new process
The Cycle is repeated
– After act phase, start planning and
Circular, never ending problem
repeat process solving process
 2. Kaizen
• Kai = Change
• Zen = For the better
kaizen = Continuous Improvement

Kaizen - 5s Campaign

1. • SEIRI - Sort out Waste – Eliminate Waste

2. • SEITION - Systematic Arrangement – Place for everything and
everything in place
3. • SEISO - Shine the place – Cleanliness
4. • SEIKETSU - Self care – Proper maintenance of machines, tools
and workplace
5. • SHITSUKE – Self Discipline – Stick to rules and make it a habit
3. Benchmarking Process

• Identify a critical process that needs improving

• Identify an organization that excels in this
process
• Contact that organization
• Analyze the data
• Improve the critical process
4. Seven Problem Solving Tools of TQ

1. Cause-and-Effect Diagrams
2. Flowcharts
3. Checklists
4. Control Charts
5. Scatter Diagrams
6. Pareto Analysis
7. Histograms
1. Cause-and-Effect (Ishikawa) Diagrams
• Also called Fishbone Diagram
• Focused on identifying the causes of quality problem
A Cause and Effect Diagram shows the relationship
between effect and the categories of their causes.
The diagram look like a fishbone it is therefore also
called fish-bone diagram.

Cause and effect diagram enables a team to focus

on the content of a problem. It helps to provide a
comprehensive picture of the problem and the root
causes of the same.
Steps in making Cause and Effect Diagram

• Determine the Effect or Problem

• Categorize the possible causes
• Describe the possible causes
1. Draw an arrow horizontally pointing to an effect

2. Draw four or more branches off the large arrow to represent main
categories of potential causes. Typical categories are man, machinery,
methods, and materials.
Secondary causes can be listed on branches off
the category branches.
 4. Additional causes can be branched off the Secondary
causes

5. Additional Causes, if any, may further be branched

off the tertiary causes. The process goes on till all the
possible causes have been explored.
2. Flow Charts

A flow chart is way of representing a procedure

using simple symbols and arrows. A Flow chart
shows the activities in a process and the
relationships between them. A Flow chart lets a
process be understood easily. It also demonstrate
the relationships between the elements of the
process.
• It is used to document the detailed steps in a
process
• Often it’s the first step in Process Re-Engineering
Steps in making Flow
Charts
• Determine the Process
need to be represented
by flow chart
• List down the sequence
of operation and other
details
• Start at a certain point
and go then step by step
• Using flow chart symbols
• Write the titles to each
element
3. Checklist
• Simple data check-off sheet designed to identify type of quality
problems at each work station; per shift, per machine, per
operator
4. Control Charts
• Important tool used in Statistical Process Control . Control charts are statistical tool, showing whether a process is in control
or not.  It is a graphical tool for monitoring the activities of an ongoing process also referred as Shewhart control charts.
• Steps in making control chart
• Define Upper limit, lower limit and Center line
• Draw Chart
• Plot the data points into chart
• Interpret the control chart

A process is in control IF
•      No sample points outside control limits
•      Most points near process average or center line
•      About equal number of points above and below the center line
•      Sample point are distributed randomly
Control Charts (Figure) 
Control charts are statistical tool, showing whether a process is in control or
not.  It is a graphical tool for monitoring the activities of an ongoing process also
referred as Shewhart control charts. Control charts are used for process
monitoring and variability reduction.
Before discussing and calculating the limits etc. of control charts, it is
necessary to understand causes of variations present in the system. Variability
is an inherent feature of every process.  Production data always have some
variability.  
5. Scatter Diagrams
• A graph that shows how two variables are related to one
another
• Data can be used in a regression analysis to establish
equation for the relationship
6. Pareto Analysis
• Technique that displays the degree of importance for each element.
• Named after the 19th century Italian economist VILFREDO PARETO
provided a golden rule which fits into many managerial situations. The
golden rule he noticed is “WEALTH IS CONCENTRATED IN A FEW
PEOPLE”.
• Pareto principle is Often called the 80-20 Rule

80% of the
problems
umber of defects

may be
attributed to
20% of the
causes. Off Smeare Missin Loos Othe
cente d g e r
7.Histograms
• A Histogram is a bar graph used to present frequency data. Histograms
provide an easy way to evaluate the distribution of data over different
categories.
• Steps in making Histogram
Define Categories for Data
Collect Data, sort them into the categories
Count the Data for each category
Draw the Diagram. Each category finds its place on the x-Axis.
The bars will be as high as the value for the category
• Displays whether the distribution is symmetrical (normal) or skewed
 Why TQM Efforts Fail
• Bureaucracy during the implementation
• Lack of communication
• Lack of leadership support
• Complexity of implementation
• Lack of training and employee development
• Lack of time to implement more complex practices
• Lack of sense of urgency
• Lack of technical knowledge
• Resistance to change
• Lack of shared responsibility among sectors
• Lack of links between quality, strategy and operations
• Lack of implementation planning
• Existence of different subcultures

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