Primary Memory

Cache Memory
Secondary Memory

-Kritika Baral
Primary Memory
Primary storage/memory, also known as main memory, is the part of the computer
that stores current data, programmes, and instructions. Primary Memory is a section
of computer memory that the CPU can access directly. It allows a processor to access
running execution applications and services that are temporarily stored in a specific
memory location. Primary memory is a computer system's volatile storage
mechanism. As soon as a computer starts, primary memory loads all running
applications, including the base operating system (OS), user interface and any user-
installed and running software utility. A program/application that is opened in
primary memory interacts with the system processor to perform all application-
specific tasks.
The primary storage section is used for four purposes, out of which three are
related to data processing;
•Data are fed into an input storage area where they are held until ready to be
processed.
•A working storage space, that is like a sheet of paper, is used to hold the data being
processed and the intermediate results of such processing.
•An output storage area holds the finished results of the processing operations until
they can be released.
•Inaddition to these data related purposes the primary storage section also contains a
program storage area that holds the processing instructions.
Primary memory is categorized into two main types;
•Random Access Memory (RAM)
•Read Only Memory (ROM

Primary Memory

RAM ROM

SRAM DRAM
EPPRO Flash
MROM PROM EPROM
M ROM
 1.Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random access memory (RAM) is volatile primary storage. Once the computer is switched
off the data and instructions held in RAM are lost. RAM is given the term ‘random access’
because data and instructions can be stored and accessed from any location within
the memory. RAM is used to hold data and instructions that are currently in use. In a modern
PC, RAM is used to hold the operating system and any open documents and programs that
are running. The contents of RAM can be changed at any time by overwriting it with other
data and instructions. For example, a user might close one document and open another or run
a different program. RAM is further categorized into two types;
A) SRAM (Static Random-Access Memory)
SRAM stands for static random access memory. It is made up of four to six transistors. It
keeps data in the memory as long as power is supplied to the system unlike DRAM, which
has to be refreshed periodically. As such, SRAM is faster but also more expensive, making
DRAM the more prevalent memory in computer systems.

Features
It is made up of with transistor and flip-flops.
Transistors have no charge leakage property.
SRAM is lower in density which means that SRAM chips are both physically larger and
store many less bit overall.
It does not need the periodic refresh rates like DRAM.
B) DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory)
DRAM stands for dynamic random access memory. It is widely used as a
computer’s main memory. Each DRAM memory cell is made up of a transistor
and a capacitor within an integrated circuit, and a data bit is stored in the
capacitor. Since transistors always leak a small amount, the capacitors will
slowly discharge, causing information stored in it to drain; hence, DRAM has to
be refreshed (given a new electronic charge) every few milliseconds to retain
data.

Features
•It is made up of with capacitors and few transistors.
•Capacitors have charge leakage property.
•It is dense, meaning that we can pack a lot of bits into a very small chip and it is
very inexpensive which makes it affordable for large amount of memory.
•DRAM gets its name from the fact that it must be refreshed frequently.
 
 2.Read Only Memory (ROM)
Read only memory (ROM) is non-volatile primary storage. It keeps its contents when the
computer is turned off. ROM can be read from but not written to. ROM can be read from but
not written to, hence the term read only. This makes ROM ideal for storing instructions and
data that are needed for the computer to run. These instructions and data are usually
programmed by the computer's manufacturer and cannot be overwritten. The BIOS (Basic
Input Output System) is an example of a program that is stored in ROM. The BIOS runs as
soon as the computer is switched on. It checks that the hardware is functioning correctly then
loads the computer's operating system. Because the BIOS is always needed it is stored in
ROM. ROM is further categorized into five types;

A) MROM
MROM is an abbreviation for Masked Read Only Memory. It is a read only memory
chip that is programmed (data is stored in it) during it's manufacturing. MROMs cost
relatively low. MROMs were the first ROMs to be developed and were hard wired,
contain a pre-programmed set of instructions or data. During the design phase in the
manufacturing process of a MROM, a software mask is burned directly onto the chip.
The customer receives the specifications of the MROM in a certain format and in
tabular form. It's the job of the manufacturer to make the corresponding mask for
the paths to generate the required output.
B) PROM
PROM is an abbreviation for Programmable Read Only Memory. PROMs are also
called as PLD, as they are used in logic designs. It's a device that includes both
the OR plane as well as the AND plane within a single IC package. AND plane is
fixed and OR plane is programmable. A plane is a sequence of gates such as AND,
OR, etc as shown in the diagram above. it is also known as an array. The AND array
(AND plane) of a PROM acts as a decoder. It will decode the data from the address
lines. The circuits in a PROM can be designed and modified easily and fast.

C) EPROM
EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is a chip that is
non-volatile in nature and was invented in 1971 by Dov Frohman at Intel. An
EPROM can be reprogrammed if required by exposing it to ultraviolet light. But
otherwise, an EPROM does not save or accept any new data. EPROM chips are not
used in modern computers as they have been replaced by EEPROM chips. EPROM is
used by hardware manufacturers when it is required that the data stored in the ROM
be changed. A distinguishing feature of EPROM chips is a small quartz crystal circle
window exposing the chip so that it could be reprogrammed.
 
 
D) EEPROM
EEPROM is an abbreviation for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is
non-volatile in nature and is used for storing small amounts of data in computer systems or some
other electronic devices. In an EEPROM, write and erase operations are performed one byte at a
time In an EEPROM an individual byte of data could be erased and reprogrammed entirety, by
application of electrical potential. EEPROM technology was developed in 1978 at Intel by George
Perlegos. EEPROMs have been replaced PROMs and EPROMS. An EEPROM needs not be
ejected from the computer system for making modifications to it. A drawback of EEPROM chips
is that they perform read and write cycle slowly in comparison to primary memory (RAM).

E)Flash ROM
Flash memory is non-volatile in nature and is therefore has several use cases in which short to
medium-term data storage is required. Flash memory technology implementations range from
flash USB memory sticks (also known as pen drives) to camera memory cards like compact
Flashcards or CF cards and SD memory cards and solid state drives (SSDs) in a computer system.
Flash memory is one of the most widely used forms of memory. Flash memory storage was born
out of a combination of the traditional EPROM and EPPROM. A relevant benefit of using flash
memory is that it can be erased electrically. It is used in digital cellular phones, digital cameras,
LAN switches, PC cards for notebook computer and other devices.

 
 
 
 
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a chip-based computer component that makes retrieving data from
the computer's memory more efficient. It acts as a temporary storage area that the
computer's processor can retrieve data from easily. This temporary storage area,
known as a cache, is more readily available to the processor than the computer's main
memory source, typically some form of DRAM. cache memory is high speed
memory that resides between the CPU and RAM in a computer.
To access main memory the CPU sends an address to it. In the response of this,
the main memory sends data contained at the specified memory address. on the other
hand, cache memory uses parallel searching of required data. It compares the
incoming address to the address present in the cache. If the address matches, it is said
that cache "hit". so, cache hit success retrieval of data from cache memory by the
CPU. Then the corresponding data is read by the CPU. The larger the cache, the
more chance that a particular file will be cache.
If the address does not match it is said that miss has occurred. "cache miss is the
failure of retrieval of data from the cache memory by the CPU". When a miss occurs,
data is read from the main memory is also written to cache memory, so that when this
specific address is accessed next time a hit occurs . Usually the hit ratio is above
90%.
Figure : Cache memory model
cache memory can be further classified into two categories :
1. Level 1 cache (L1):
L1 cache, also known as primary cache or internal cache , is extremely
fast but relatively small, and is usually embedded in the processor chip
as CPU cache.

2. Level 2 cache (L2):

L2 cache, also known as secondary cache or external cache, is often
more capacious than L1. L2 cache may be embedded on the CPU, or it
can be on a separate chip or coprocessor and have a high-speed
alternative system bus connecting the cache and CPU. That way it
doesn't get slowed by traffic on the main system bus.
 Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is computer memory that is non-volatile, persistent and not
immediately accessible by a computer or processor.. It allows users to store data and
information that can be retrieved, transmitted, and used by apps and services quickly
and easily. Secondary memory consists of all permanent or persistent storage devices,
such as read-only memory (ROM), flash drives, hard disk drives (HDD), magnetic
tapes and other types of internal/external storage media. In computing operations,
secondary memory is accessed only by the primary or main memory and later
transported to the processor. Secondary memory is slower than primary memory but
can store and retain data, even if the computer is not connected to electrical power. It
also has substantial storage capacities, ranging from megabytes to several
terabytes of storage space within single memory.

Use of secondary memory

Secondary memory is mainly used for different purposes. The primary purpose of
using it is as follows:
1. Permanent storage
2. Large storage
3. Portable
Types of secondary memory
There are two types of secondary memory:
1. Fixed Storage
A fixed storage device in secondary memory is an internal media device used to
store data in a computer system. Fixed storage is sometimes known as hard drives or
the fixed disc drives. In most cases, the computer system’s data is saved in the fixed
storage device that’s incorporated into a given system. Fixed storage does not
preclude their removal from the computer system; with the assistance of an expert or
engineer, you may remove the fixed storage device for repairs, upgrades, or
maintenance, among other things.
Types of fixed storage:
Here are the different types of fixed storage:
• Hard disk drives (HDD)
• SSD (solid-state disk)
• Internal flash memory (rare)
2. Removable Storage
Removable storage refers to an external media device that is mainly used to store
data on a computer system in secondary memory. The disk drives or the external
drives are common names for removable storage. It’s a removable storage device
that can be inserted or withdrawn from the computer as needed. We can uninstall
them effortlessly from a computer system while it’s still running. We can transfer
data from any computer to another one simply using removable storage devices
because they are portable. Also, removable storage devices provide high data and
information transfer speeds that the storage area networks (or SANs) are known
for.
Types of Removable Storage:
Here are the types of removable storage:
• Optical discs (such as DVDs, CDs, Blu-ray discs, etc.)
• Floppy disks
• Memory cards
• Disk packs
• Magnetic tapes
• Paper storage (such as punched cards, punched tapes, etc