EE-371

LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS

“CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING”

Text Book: Chapter 3 (nn 7th Ed)
Time Domain Analysis

Instructor: Dr. Farid Gul

Class: : BEE-2k20-AB

Electrical Engineering Department

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 3.1 Introduction, 116
3.2 Some Observations, 116
3.3 The General State-Space Representation,
3.4 Applying the State-Space Representation
3.5 Converting a Transfer Function to State Space
3.6 Converting from State Space to a Transfer
Function

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 Two Approaches for Analysis and
Design of Control Systems
The classical, or frequency-domain, technique

• Convert differential equation to a transfer function through LT

• Generates a mathematical model of the system that algebraically relates the
output to the input
Applicable to relatively simple LTI,
SISO systems
The state-space technique (modern, or time-domain, approach)
Applicable for modeling, analyzing, and designing a wide range of
systems.

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 Loop Eq

State Equation

State-space representation
All other variables can be
Taking LT expressed in terms of :
i(t) (the state variable) and
v(t) (the input)
For step input

Output Equations
Inverse LT

i(t) can be determined if

i(0) and v(t) are known
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 vR di 1 dvR
Let i  
R dt R dt
vL (t )  v(t )  vR (t )
vR (t )
i (t ) 
R
dvR R
Alternate description of the   v (t )  vR (t ) 
dt L
network dynamics
All other network variables can now be written in terms of the
state variable, vR(t), and the input, v(t)

Choice of state variables is not unique

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The loop equation

using i(t) = dq/dt, we get

The network is of second order, two
simultaneous, first-order differential equations
are needed to solve for two state variables
Network variables:

representation
vR(t), vC(t), vL(t), i(t), q(t),

State-space
di (t ) dq(t )
,
dt dt

select i(t) and q(t),the charge

on the capacitor, as the two
vL(t) is a linear combination of the state
state variables
variables, q(t) and i(t), and the input, v(t)
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The loop equation

Alternate choice of state variables

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State Equation The state and output equations can be
written in vector-matrix form,

Output Equations The output equation, can be written as

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Graphic representation of state
space and a state vector

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Observations
• For a system with many variables,
we need to use differential
equations only to solve for a System variables:
selected subset of system
variables vR(t), vC(t), vL(t), i(t), q(t),
di (t ) dq(t )
• The remaining system variables ,
dt dt
can be evaluated algebraically
from the variables in the subset
Selected subset of system
• The selected subset of system variables
variable are the state variables i(t) and q(t)

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• For an nth-order system, we write n simultaneous, first-order
differential equations in terms of the state variables.

• We call this system of simultaneous

differential equations the “state
equations”.

• If we know the initial condition of all the state variables at t0

as well as the system input for t > t0, we can solve the
simultaneous differential equations for the state variables for t
> t 0.

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• The state variables are algebraically combined with the
system's input to find the remaining system variables for t >
t0.

• This algebraic equation is the output equation.

• The state equations and the output equations represent the
system.
• This representation of the system is called state-space
representation.
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 choosing the state variables
1. The choice of state variables for a given system is not unique
2. A minimum number of state variables must be selected as
components of the state vector
3. This minimum number of state variables is sufficient to
completely describe the state of the system
4. The components of the state vector must be linearly
independent

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 Terminologies and the Concepts used
in State-space Technique

4. State variables
1. Linear combination 5. State vector
2. Linear independence 6. State space
3. System variable 7. State equations
8. Output equation

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The General State-Space Representation
x = state vector
x = time derivative of the state vector
u = input or control vector

A = system matrix D
B = input matrix
u x x y
B  C

y = output vector
A

C = output matrix
D = feed-forward matrix

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The General State-Space Representation

 x1   a11 a12   x1   b1 

 x   a       v(t )
 2   21 a22   x2  b2 

 x1 
y  c1 c2     d1v(t )
 x2 

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 Applying the State-Space Representation
Select the state vector, which must be chosen according to the
following considerations:
1. A minimum number of state variables must be selected as
components of the state vector. This minimum number of state
variables is sufficient to completely describe the state of the
system.

2. The components of the state vector must be linearly

independent.

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 Linear Independence
• If x3 can be expressed in terms of x1 and x2 as:
x3 = 5x1 + 4x2
then x3 is not linearly independent of x1 and x2
• Variables and their successive derivatives are linearly
independent.
For example, the voltage across an inductor, vL, is linearly
independent of the current through the inductor, iL.
diL
vL is linearly dependent on diL/dt vL  L
dt
vL cannot be evaluated as a linear combination of the current, iL
diL diL
iL , vL , i L vL ,
dt dt
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Example 3.1 Representing an Electrical Network
PROBLEM: Given the electrical network shown in the Figure, find a
state-space representation if the output is the current through the resistor.

SOLUTION:
• Label all of the branch
currents
• Write the derivative equation for all
energy storage elements
choose the state variables as the quantities
that are differentiated.

The right-hand sides of these Eqs.

should be linear combinations of the
state variables and the input
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• Apply network theory to
obtain ic and vL in terms of the
state variables, vc and iL and
the input v(t).
At Node 1

Writing loop eq
for outer loop

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Example 3.3 Representing a Translational Mechanical System
PROBLEM: Find the state equations for the translational mechanical
system shown in the Figure.
SOLUTION:

dx1 d 2 x1 dv1
 v1 
dt dt 2
dt
dx1
 v1
dt dx2 d 2 x2 dv2
 v2 
dt dt 2
dt

dx2
 v2
dt x1, v1, x2, v2 are the state
variables

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dx1
 v1
dt

dx2
 v2
dt

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Obtaining State equations from an
nth order differential equation

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 Dynamic Equations

Choose the output, y(t), and its successive derivatives

up to (n-1)th derivatives as the state variables
Differentiating d n y dy d n 1 y
both sides n
 a0 y  a1   an 1 n 1  b0u
dt dt dt
= x2

= x3

= x4

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  x1 
x 
 2  State vector
x 
x 3 
 
 xn 1 

 xn 
 phase-variable form of
the state equations

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Converting a Transfer Function to
State Space

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Dynamic Equations Transfer Function
Y ( s) b0
 n
U ( s ) s  an 1s n 1    a1s  a0

Choose the output, y(t), and its successive derivatives

up to (n-1)th derivatives as the state variables
Differentiating d n y dy d n 1 y
both sides n
 a0 y  a1   an 1 n 1  b0u
dt dt dt
= x2

= x3

= x4

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  x1 
x 
 2  State vector
 x 
x 3 
 
 xn 1 
  phase-variable form of
 xn 
the state equations

Y ( s) b0
 n
U ( s) s  an 1s n 1    a1s  a0
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Example 3.4 Converting a Transfer Function with
Constant Term in Numerator
PROBLEM: Find the state-space representation in phase-variable form
for the system shown in the figure
SOLUTION:

By cross-multiplying we get

By taking the inverse Laplace transform, the differential

equation is found

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Choosing the state variables as successive derivatives

 x1   c 
 x    c 
 2  
 x 3  c

State Equations Output Equation

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Equivalent block diagram
showing phase-variables

x 2 (t ) x 1 (t )

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 Transfer Function with a polynomial in numerator

The numerator and denominator

can be separated into two cascaded
transfer functions

The first transfer function is converted to the phase-variable

representation in state space with x1 as output

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The second transfer function may be expressed as

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get:

x1  x2
or x 2  x3

The output y(t) is a linear combination

of the state variables

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 b2
C(t)
b1
r(t) x 3 x3 x2 x1
1/a3    b0
- --  0 1 0 
a2/a3 A   0 0 1 
a1/a3  a0 a3 a1 a3 a2 a3 

a0/a3
 0 
B   0 
1 a3 

C  b0 b1 b2 
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Converting from State Space to a
Transfer Function

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 The state and output equations are given
as
Substituting for X(s) in Eq (2)

Taking the Laplace transform assuming

zero initial conditions

(1) Transfer functions

matrix
(2)
From Eq (1) If U(s) = U(s) and Y(s) = Y(s) are scalars,
the transfer function can be found

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Example 3.6 State-Space Representation to Transfer
Function

PROBLEM: Given the system defined by the following state and

output Equations, find the transfer function, T(s) = Y(s)/U(s), where
U(s) is the input and Y(s) is the output.

SOLUTION:
The transfer function matrix
is:

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 = ???

Note: det(sI - A) is the Characteristic polynomial

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 Home Assignment
Q #1
Convert the given transfer
function for the mechanical
translational system to the
state-space representation
in phase-variable form.
Draw equivalent block
diagram showing the phase
variables.

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 Assignment
Q #2
Convert the following transfer function to the state-space
representation in phase-variable form and clearly write matrices
A, B, C, and D.
C (s) s 2  2s  7
T (s)   4
R ( s ) s  7 s 3  3s 2  5 s  9

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???