Introduction of Proposition

Logical Reasoning
PROPOSITIONS
Quarter 2
Prepared by: Gideon S. Cayog

 Statements are verbal assertions and are denoted
by the letters p, q, and r.
The fundamental property of a statement is that it
is either true or false, but not both.
The truthfulness or falsity of a statement is called
truth value.
Some statements are composites/ compound,
which are composed of sub-statements and various
connectives.
Examples:
1. Pampanga is in Region III.

–7 –9 = 16 2.
3. Do your homework.
x = -4 is a solution of x2= 16. 4.
5. Where are you going?
TYPES OF
CONNECTIVES
1. Conjunction
Any two statements can be
combined by the word “and ” to S W
form a composite statement which is
called the conjunction of the original
statements. Symbolically, the
conjunction of the two statements p
O T
and q is denoted by p ʌ q.
Examples:
(1)Let p be “It is raining.”, and q be “The sun is

shining”.
Then p ʌ q denotes the statement “It is raining and
the sun is shining”.
(2) The symbol ʌ can be used to define the

intersection of two sets; specifically,
A B = {x | x A ʌ x B}.
The truth value of the composite statement p ʌ q satisfies
the following property :
If p is true and q is true, then p ʌ q is true;
otherwise p ʌ q is false.
A convenient way to state this property is by means of a
table as follows :
2. Disjunction
Any two statements can be
combined by the word
“or” to form a new
statement which is called
the disjunction of the
statements p and q and is
denoted by p v q.
Examples:
Let p be “He enrolled General Mathematics”, and let q be “He

dropped Statistics”. Then p v q is the statement “He
enrolled General Mathematics or he dropped Statistics”.
The symbol v can be used to define the union of

two sets; specifically,
A B = {x | x A v x B}.
The truth value of the composite statement
p v q satisfies the following property:
If p is true or q is true or both p and q are true, then
p v q is true; otherwise, p v q is false.
3. Negation
Given any statement p, another
statement, called the negation of
p, can be formed by writing “It is
false that...” before p or, if
possible, by inserting in p the
word “not”. Symbolically, the
negation of p is denoted by ~p
Examples:
Consider the following three statements:
(1)Pampanga is located in Region III.
(2)It is false that Pampanga is located in Region
III.
(3)Pampanga is not located in Region III.
The truth value of the negation of a statement satisfies
the following property:
If p is true, then ~p is false; if p is false then ~p is
true.
In other words, the truth value of the negation of a
statement is always the opposite of the truth value
of the original statement.
4. Conditional
Many statements, especially in
mathematics, are of the form “if p
then q”. Such statements are called
conditional statements and are
denoted by p q. The conditional p q
can also be read “p implies q”.
Examples: Consider the following statements:
(1) If Pampanga is in Region III then 2 + 2 = 5.
(2) If Pampanga is in NCR then 2 + 2 = 4.
(3) If Pampanga is in Region III then 2 + 2 = 4.
(4) If Pampanga is in NCR then 2 + 2 = 5.
The truth value of the negation of a statement satisfies the
following property:
The conditional p q is true unless p is true and q is false.
An implication can be classified in terms of its
relation with another conditional statement.
Given the statements p and q, if p q, then
1. the conditional statement q p is called converse.

2. the conditional statement ~q ~p is called
contrapositive.
3. the conditional statement ~p ~q is called the
inverse.
Example:
Given the statement “If x = 2, then x 3= 8.”
1.The converse of the implication is
“If x3= 8, then x = 2.”
2. The contrapositive of the implication is
“If x3 ≠ 8, then x ≠ 2.”
3. The inverse of the implication is
If x ≠ 2, then x3 ≠ 8.”
5.Biconditional
Another common statement is of
the form “p if and only if q” or,
simply, “p iff q”. Such
statements are called
biconditional statements and are
denoted by pq.
Examples: Consider the following statements:
(1) Pampanga is in Region III iff 2 + 2 = 5.

(2) Pampanga is in NCR iff 2 + 2 = 4.
(3) Pampanga is in Region III iff 2 + 2 = 4.
(4) Pampanga is in NCR iff 2 + 2 = 5.
The truth value of the negation of a statement
satisfies the following property:
If p and q have the same truth value, then p q is true;
if p and q have opposite truth values, then p q is
false.
SELF-ASSESMENT QUESTION
1. Determine the truth value of each of the ff. statements.

(a) If 3 + 2 = 7, then 4 + 4 = 10.
(b) It is not true that 2 + 2 = 5 if and only if 4 + 4 = 10.
(c) 0 is a natural number or -5 is whole number.
(d) Either 1 + 3 = 2 and 3 –1 = 2 or 2 + 3 = 1.
(e) It is false that if 0 is a whole number then -1 is a
counting number.
Propositions and Truth Tables
A proposition, denoted by P, Q..., is a Boolean
polynomial in the statements p, q,... A simple
and concise way to show the relationship
between the truth value of a proposition P
(p,q,...) and the truth values of its statements
p, q,.. Is through a truth table. The truth table
for example, of the proposition ~( p ʌ ~ q) is
constructed as follows:
for example, of the proposition ~( p ʌ ~ q) is
constructed as follows:
p q ~q p ʌ~q ~( p ʌ~q)
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T
Note that the previous proposition contains T in the 1st, 3rd
and 4th rows and F in the 2nd row. Thus, the given proposition
n is called contingency.
In the next tables, the last column contains only T, in other

words, they are true for any truth values of their variables.
Such proposition is called tautology.
Similarly, a proposition is called contradiction if it contains

only F in the last column of its truth table.
Logical Equivalence
Two propositions p and q are said to be logically
equivalent if their truth tables are identical. We denote the
logical equivalence of p and q by p q.

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Logical Reasoning

Prepared by: Gideon S. Cayog

1. Pampanga is in Region III.

(1)Let p be “It is raining.”, and q be “The sun is

(2) The symbol ʌ can be used to define the

Let p be “He enrolled General Mathematics”, and let q be “He

The symbol v can be used to define the union of

1. the conditional statement q p is called converse.

(1) Pampanga is in Region III iff 2 + 2 = 5.

1. Determine the truth value of each of the ff. statements.

In the next tables, the last column contains only T, in other

Similarly, a proposition is called contradiction if it contains

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