HARDWARE

The System Unit:

Processing and Memory
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Understand how data and programs are represented to a computer and be able to
identify a few of the coding systems used to accomplish this.

2. Explain the functions of the hardware components commonly found inside the system
unit, such as the CPU, GPU, memory, buses, and expansion cards.

3. Describe how peripheral devices or other hardware can be added to a computer.

4. Understand how a computer’s CPU and memory components process program

instructions and data.

5. Name and evaluate several strategies that can be used today for speeding up the
operations of a computer.

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OVERVIEW

1. Explain how computers represent data and program instructions.

2. Explain how the CPU and memory are arranged with other components inside the
system unit.

3. Explain how a CPU performs processing tasks.

4. Identify strategies that can be used today to create faster and better computers in the
future.

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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION
○ Digital Data Representation
 Coding Systems
o Used to represent data and programs in a manner understood by the computer
 Digital Computers
o Can only understand two states, off and on (0 and 1)
 Digital Data Representation
o The process of presenting data in digital form so it can be understood by a computer

Ways of representing 0 and 1. Binary computers recognize only two states—off and on—usually
represented by 0 and 1.
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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION
○ Bit: The smallest unit of data that a binary computer can recognize (a single 1 or 0)

○ Byte: 8 bits

○ Byte terminology used to express the size of documents and other files, programs, etc.

○ Prefixes are often used to express larger quantities of bytes: kilobyte (KB), megabyte
(MB), gigabyte, (GB), terabyte (TB), etc.

Bits and bytes. Document size, storage capacity, and memory capacity are all measured in bytes.

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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION
○ Representing Numerical Data: The Binary Numbering System
 Numbering system
o A way of representing numbers
 Decimal numbering system
o Uses 10 symbols (0-9)
 Binary numbering system
o Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all possible numbers
 In both systems, the position of the digits determines the power to which the base number (such
as 10 or 2) is raised

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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION

Examples of using the decimal and binary numbering systems.

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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION
○ Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

○ ASCII, EBCDIC, and UNICODE

 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange)
o Coding system traditionally used with personal computers
o A fixed-length, binary coding system used to represent text-
based data for computer processing on many types of
computers
 EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange
Code)
o Developed by IBM, primarily for mainframe

Some extended ASCII code examples

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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION
○ Unicode
 Newer code (32 bits per character is common)
 Universal coding standard designed to represent text-based data written in any ancient or modern
language
 Replacing ASCII as the primary text-coding system

Unicode. Many characters, such as these, can be represented by Unicode but not by ASCII or EBCDIC.

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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION
○ Graphics Data (still images such
as photos or drawings)
 Bitmapped images
o Image made up of a grid of
small dots called pixels
o Monochrome graphic can only
be one of two colors
 Requires just one bit for color
stage
o Images with more than two
colors
 Can use 4, 8, or 24 bits to store
the color data for each pixel
 More bits = more colors

Representing graphics data. With bitmapped images, the color of each pixel
is represented by bits; the more bits used, the better the image quality.
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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION
○ Audio Data
 Must be in digital form in order to be stored on or processed by a computer
 Often compressed when sent over the Internet
o MP3 files are 10 times smaller than their uncompressed digital versions
o Download more quickly and take up less storage

○ Video Data
 Displayed using a collection of frames, each frame contains a still image
 Amount of data can be substantial, but can be compressed

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DATA AND PROGRAM REPRESENTATION
○ Representing Software Programs: Machine Language
 Machine language
o Binary-based language for representing computer programs the computer can execute directly
o Early program were written in machine language
o Today’s programs still need to be translated into machine language in order to be understood
by the computer
 Most programs are written in other programming languages
o Language translators are used to translate the programs into machine language

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ System Unit
 The main case of a computer
 Houses the processing hardware for a computer
 Also contains storage devices, the power supply, and cooling fans
 Houses the CPU, memory, interfaces to connect to peripheral devices (printers, etc.), and other
components such as CD/DVD drives
 With a desktop computer, usually looks like a rectangular box

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT

Inside a typical system unit. The system unit houses the CPU, memory, and
other important pieces of hardware
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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ The Motherboard
 Computer Chip
o Very small pieces of silicon or other semi-conducting material onto which integrated circuits are
embedded
 Circuit Board
o A thin board containing computer chips and other electronic components
 Motherboard or System Board
o The main circuit board inside the system unit
o All devices must connect to the motherboard
 Computer Chip
o Very small pieces of silicon or other semi-conducting material onto which integrated circuits are
embedded
o External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice, printers) typically connect by plugging into a port
exposed through the exterior of the system unit
o Wireless devices connect through a transceiver or wireless networking technology (like
Bluetooth)
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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ The Power Supply and Drive Bays
 Power Supply
o Connects to the motherboard to deliver electricity (personal computer)
o Portable computers use rechargeable battery pack
 Non-removable batteries more difficult and expensive to replace

 Drive bays
o Rectangular metal racks inside the system unit that house storage devices
 Hard drive, CD/DVD drive, flash memory card reader
 Connected to the motherboard with a cable

 The CPU (Central Processing Unit)

o Circuitry and components packaged together and connected directly to the motherboard
o Does the vast majority of processing for a computer
o Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when talking about personal computers

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
 Dual-core CPU
o Contains the processing components (cores) of two
separate processors on a single CPU
 Quad-core CPU
o Contains four cores
 Multi-core processors allow computers to work on more than
one task at a time
 Typically different CPUs for desktop computers, portable
computers, servers, mobile devices, consumer devices, etc.
o Personal computer CPU often made by Intel or AMD
o Netbooks and mobile devices use processors made by
other companies such as ARM

Examples of CPUs.

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT

CPU examples and characteristics.

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ Processing Speed
 CPU clock speed is one measurement of processing speed
 Measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
 Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions processed per second
 Alternate measure of processing speed is the number of instructions a CPU can process per second
o Megaflops (millions), gigaflops (billions), teraflops (trillions)
 Other factors (CPU architecture, memory, bus speed, amount of RAM, etc.) also effect overall processing speed of a
computer
 Benchmark tests can be used to evaluate overall processing speed

○ Word Size
 The amount of data that a CPU can manipulate at one time
 Typically 32 or 64 bits

○ Cache Memory
 Special group of very fast memory chips located on or close to the CPU
 Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3
 More cache memory typically means faster processing
 Usually internal cache (built into the CPU)
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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
 Often some cache dedicated to each core; may also have some shared cache accessible by any
core
 If data or instructions are not found in the cache memory, the computer looks for them in RAM
o If not found in RAM, they are retrieved from the hard drive
o RAM is slower than cache memory

○ Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth

 A bus is an electronic path over which data can travel
 Found inside the CPU and on the motherboard
 Bus width is the number of wires in the bus over which data can travel
o A wider bus allows more data to be transferred at one time
 Bus width and speed determine the throughput or bandwidth of the bus
o The amount of data that can be transferred by the bus in a given time period

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ Memory
 Refers to chip-based storage located inside the system unit
 Storage refers to the amount of long-term storage available to a computer
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
o Computer’s main memory
o Consists of chips arranged on a circuit board called a memory module which are plugged into the
motherboard
o Stores essential parts of operating system, programs, and data the computer is currently using
o Adequate RAM is needed to run programs
o Volatile
 RAM content lost when the computer is shut off
 ROM and flash memory are non-volatile
o Measured in bytes
 Amount installed depends on the CPU and operating system being used
o Most personal computers use SD-RAM
o MRAM and PRAM – non-volatile RAM
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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
 Each location in memory has an
address
o Each location typically holds one
byte
o Computer system sets up and
maintains directory tables to
facilitate retrieval of the data

Memory addressing.

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
 Registers
o High-speed memory built into the CPU
o Used to store data and intermediary results during processing
o Fastest type of memory
 ROM (Read-Only Memory)
o Non-volatile chips located on the motherboard into which data or programs have been
permanently stored
o Retrieved by the computer when needed
o Being replaced with flash memory
 Flash Memory
o Type of non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed
o Some flash memory chips are used by the computer
 Used to store the computer’s BIOS and firmware
o Flash memory chips are also used in flash memory storage media (sticks, cards, and drives) and
devices such as digital cameras, mobile phones, handheld gaming devices, and digital media
players
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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ Fans, Heat Sinks, and other Cooling Components
 Fans
o Fans used on most personal computers to help cool the CPU and system unit
o Heat is an ongoing problem for CPU and computer manufacturers
 Can damage components
 Cooler chips run faster

 Heat Sinks
o Small components typically made out of aluminum with fins that help to dissipate heat
 Water Cooling Systems
o Cool the computer with liquid-filled tubes
 Notebook Cooling Stand
o Allows for better air circulation which helps cool the underside of a notebook computer
 Other cooling methods, such as ion pump cooling systems

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT

Computer cooling methods.

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards, and ExpressCard Modules
 Expansion Slot
o A location on the motherboard into which expansion cards are inserted
 Expansion Card
o A circuit board inserted into an expansion slot
o Used to add additional functionality or to attach a peripheral device
 ExpressCard Modules
o Designed for notebook computer expansion

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT

Types of expansion.

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ Bus
 An electronic path within a computer over which data travels
o Located within the CPU and etched onto the motherboard
 Expansion Bus
o Connects the CPU peripheral (typically input and output) devices
 Memory Bus
o Connects CPU directly to RAM
 Frontside Bus
o Connects CPU to the controller chipset that connects the CPU to the rest of the BUS architecture
 PCI and PCI Express (PCIe) Bus
o PCI has been one of the most common types
o Today, PCI Express bus, which is extremely fast, has replaced the PCI bus
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
o Extremely versatile
o Allows 127 different devices to connect to a computer via a single USB port
 FireWire/IEEE 1394 Bus
o Developed by Apple to connect multimedia devices to a computer
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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT

Buses and expansion slots. Buses transport bits and bytes from one
component to another, including the CPU, RAM, and peripheral devices.
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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
○ Ports and Connectors
 A port is a connector on the exterior of a computer’s system unit to which a device may be
attached
 Typical desktop computer ports include:
- Power connector - Firewire
- VGA monitor - Network
- USB - Audio
- HDMI
 Others include IrDA and Bluetooth ports, eSATA ports, Thunderbolt ports (Macbook Pro notebooks)
 A wired or wireless hub can connect many devices to a single USB or FireWire port
 Most computers support the Plug and Play standard

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT

Typical ports for desktop computers and examples of connectors.

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INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT
 Portable computers have ports similar to desktop computers, but often not as many
 Smartphones and mobile devices have more limited expansion capabilities
o Usually have at least one expansion slot
o Flash memory cards use the Sedure Digital (SD) format

Typical ports for portable computers.

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HOW THE CPU WORKS
○ CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 Consists of a variety of circuitry and components packaged together
 Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor
o Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a switch controlling the flow of electrons inside a
chip
 Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of transistors; the number doubles about every 18
months (Moore’s Law)

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HOW THE CPU WORKS
○ The System Clock and the Machine Cycle
 System Clock
o Small quartz crystal on the motherboard
o Timing mechanism within the computer system that synchronizes the computer’s operation
 Sends out a signal on a regular basis to all computer components
 Each signal is a cycle
 Number of cycles per second is measured in hertz (Hz)
 One megahertz = one million ticks of the system clock
 Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz
 Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the system clock speed
 A CPU with a higher clock speed processes more instructions per second than the same CPU with a lower
CPU clock speed

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HOW THE CPU WORKS
○ Machine Cycle
 The series of operations involved in the execution of a single machine level restriction

○ Typical CPU Components

 Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
o Performs arithmetic involving integers and
logical operations
 Floating Point Unit
o Performs decimal arithmetic
 Registers and Internal Cache Memory
o Store data and instructions needed by the
CPU
 Bus Interface Unit
o Allows the core to communicate with
other CPU components A machine cycle. A machine cycle is typically accomplished
in four steps.
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MAKING COMPUTERS FASTER AND BETTER
NOW AND IN THE FUTURE
○ Improving the Performance of Your System Today
 Add more memory
 Perform system maintenance
o Uninstall programs properly
o Remove unnecessary programs from the Startup list
o Consider placing large files not needed on a regular basis on external storage
o Delete temporary files
o Error check and defrag the hard drive periodically
o Scan for viruses and spyware continually
o Clean out dust once or twice a year
o Buy a larger or second hard drive
o Upgrade your Internet connection
o Upgrade your video graphics card
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