FOUNDATIONS OF

COMMUNITY John Griffiths

PSYCHOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Following lecture attendance, directed readings

and engagement with exercises you should be
able to:
Describe the historical developments that
influenced Community Psychology
Describe the principles and values that have
characterised Community Psychology
HISTORY OF CP
HISTORY OF COMMUNITY
PSYCHOLOGY
Developed in the 1960s – an era of progressive social reform in the US

Disillusionment amongst Clinical Psychologists with the way psychology

was addressing mental health issues

Swampscott Conference (US) (1965) – Community Mental

Health
Interest in applying public health approaches of prevention
& intervention to mental health
Innovative program approaches & social action needed
CP became a division of the APA in 1967 (now 
the Society for Community Research and Action).
American Journal of Community Psychology & Journal of
Community Psychology started
WHY DID CP EMERGE IN
1960S US?
Gap between the scope of mental health problems & available
resources
Albee (1959) – there were not, and never could be, enough trained
mental health professionals to provide treatment services to all with
mental health problems
Disatisfaction with the medical model of mental health
Recognition that informal sources of support (family, friends, self-
help groups, etc) important
Recognition of the importance of the social environment
CP IN THE UK
Roots in clinical psychology/mental health/applied social psychology
In the UK, community psychology developed outside of the British
Psychological Society (at least until the recent foundation of this
section- 2010). 
Influential British community psychology texts have been published
by Mike Bender (1976), Jim Orford (1992, 2008) and Carolyn
Kagan, Mark Burton, Paul Duckett, Rebecca Lawthom, and Asiya
Siddiquee (2011).
Two community-related journals started life in the UK: the 
Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology (founded
in 1991) and Community, Work and Family(founded in 1998).
DEVELOPMENTS IN CP
From roots in concern about individualistic approaches to
mental health, Community Psychology has considerably
broadened range of interests
Recognition that community well-being incorporates issues
such as:
Poverty
Disability
Health
Crime
Education
Social Exclusion & Marginalisation
LINKS WITH CRITICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Main assumptions of psychology have remained unchanged since it developed
in late C19: understanding individuals - Correcting traditional bias in psych
towards looking at individuals – thoughts, feelings, behaviour
Growing awareness of context in shaping psychology, its theories, questions,
and methods
Questioning the contribution of lab experiments to finding solutions for
pressing social problems, e.g. crisis in social psychology (Gergen, 1973)
The growth of ‘Critical Psychology’ has fed into the development of CP
E.g. from individual through to level of social structures – SES, gender,
ethnicity, etc
Philosophy & values of Critical Psychology increasingly inform Community
Psychology
DEFINING CP Definitions & Themes
THEMES IN DEFINITIONS
OF COMMUNITY
PSYCHOLOGY
1.Focus on community
2.Critical of limiting focus to individual minds
3.Interest in power and ethics
4.Giving psychology away rather than professionalization
5.Ecological approach
6.Knowledge of social systems
7.Prevention not just treatment
Community Psychology concerns the
relationships of the individual to
communities & society. Through
collaborative research & action, community
psychologists seek to understand & enhance
quality of life for individuals, communities
& society (Dalton et al. 2001)
CONTRIBUTIONS OF COMMUNITY
PSYCHOLOGY
1) Research to understand how social forces affect communities

2) Action to improve how context/environment affects individuals

 Action research & participative inquiry

Community Psychologists work collaboratively with others to help

strengthen systems, increase access to resources, etc

How are problems created in communities?

How can community problems be prevented?
How can community problems be resolved?
Favours consultation & co-operation with communities in approach to
these questions
 VALUES &
COMMUNITY
PSYCHOLOGY
VALUES OF CP
Community Psychologists concerned with creating social change, but
towards what ends?
Values inform vision for the work of CP – concerned with what should be
as opposed to what is
Values derive from personal experiences & moral philosophy, as well as
one’s spiritual & religious beliefs
Applied psychology has often ignored the moral, ethical & value
dimensions of it’s work – often implicated in upholding the status quo in
societies
E.G. Behaviour modification – use of aversive ‘treatments’ (physical
punishments)
REFLECT! VALUES
Consider your personal set of values
-Try articulating them to the person sitting next to you
-Describe one social/community issue about which you are
concerned. How did you come to be concerned about this issue?
-To what extent do you think that psychology does, can, or should
promote particular values?
SOME KEY CONCEPTS

Social context – necessary to understand the subjective experience of residents

of a particular community
Ecological metaphor – Kelly (1966) argues that the metaphor of an eco-system
is appropriate – communities as open systems with many levels and
connections – Leanne will be talking more about this (Community & Place)
Empowerment – a process, a mechanism, by which people, organisations, and
communities gain mastery over their affairs - Leanne will be talking more
about this (Social Institutions & Power)
Liberation – Freedom from oppressive life circumstances
Sense of community – feelings of connectedness experienced by individuals
with respect to where they live, where they work, or in terms of belonging in
political, professional, religious or social organisations
THEORIES OF
COMMUNITY
Tonnies (2002/1887) – Two forms of community living
Gemeinschaft – formed through shared fellowship
Connections - intimate & based on close personal knowledge, members
live cooperatively with each other
Gesellschaft – formed by association
Impersonal, unattached connections. Fragmented and lacking social
cohesion.
Later writers elaborated as continuum between rural and urban ways of
living (Nisbett, 1967)
DIMENSIONS OF
COMMUNITY
‘Communities of attachment’ vs ‘communities of interest’
Neighbourhoods which function along lines fo loyalty, belonging &
identity
Sharing common interests – e.g. clubs, workplace settings
(Wilmot, 1989)

Many ways in which community has been defined

-Geographical (building, neighbourhood, city etc.)
-Social identity (age, disability, gender, ethnicity, professional status,
sexual identity, etc)
-Common interests
THEORIES OF
COMMUNITY
Campbell (2000) organised the various ways of defining community:
Sentiment – reflecting psychological, cultural & symbolic senses in
which community operates
Space – geographical, sociospatial.
Social Structure – the way groups are organised
including the social ties that between people
PSYCHOLOGICAL SENSE
OF COMMUNITY
Sarason (1974) – increased alienation & decline in support, in
traditional communities in Western countries
Communities help to fill human needs for support & connection
Argued that the overarching aim of CP should be to create a
‘psychological sense of community’
The concept has generated much research & conceptualised at
multiple levels
“a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members
matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that
members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together.”
(McMillan & Chavis, 1986, p.9)
THEORY
Theories of Community
Ecological Systems
Theory
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
THEORY
Bronfenbrenner

 Ecological Systems
Theory
URIE BRONFENBRENNER
(1917-2005)

Born in Russia
Immigrated to the US at age 6
Enlisted in the US army immediately after completing his PhD
Interested in studying children’s development in context
Co-founder of the Head Start program
 Designed to serve at-risk nursery students to prepare them for school

Development is the result of the relationships between people and

their environments
 Cannot evaluate a child’s development only in the immediate environment
 Must also examine the interactions among the larger environments that a child
develops in
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
THEORY
Developmental approach which acknowledges the multiple
contextual influences that affect an individual.

Environmental context has been described as similar to a set of

nested structures, each inside the next, like a set of Russian dolls.
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
THEORY

Argues that an individual is found nested within

various ecological systems. Some are more proximal,
having a direct influence e.g. the family or school.
Other are more distal having an indirect effect on
behaviour, e.g. cultural norms & values.
 ACTIVITY: OSMAN SEEN FROM AN
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE

Osman is 10. He has been excluded from school on a

number of occasions for poor behaviour. He is often in
fights with other children, steals from them and does not
listen to the teachers. He lives with his mother and 5
brothers and sisters who are all well behaved. He had a
difficult experience moving to the UK from Afghanistan.
His family lives in a 2-bedroom house, in an area of
multiple deprivation.
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
THEORY OVERVIEW

Microsystem: immediate social context – e.g. family,

peer group, school – direct influences.
Mesosystem: relationship between different
microsystems.
Exosystem: wider setting, individual not directly
affected – e.g. parents’ workplace.
Macrosystem: cultural context, political system,
economic patterns – encompasses values, beliefs and
goals that influence individuals.
 MICROSYSTEM

Immediate social relationships (friends, colleagues,

classmates, parents).
Proximal processes.
Changes as individuals move into different social
networks.
Microsystem relationships have a direct influence on
behaviour.
Relationships are bidirectional & have a direct
 MESOSYSTEM

Connections between the relationships of individuals’

microsystem.

Interaction between different microsystems.

Important that microsystems are congruent in their

values.
 EXOSYSTEM

Links between two or more settings - at least one of which

does not contain the developing person,

But which nonetheless has an influence on their behaviour.

No direct contact or participation.

E.g. home & parents’ workplace, parent’s circle of friends,

neighbourhood/community, mass media, local government.
 MACROSYSTEM

Refers to the wider social system as such: the cultural

context; the political system; or economic patterns.

These systems encompass norms, values, beliefs and

goals that influence an individual.

Influences how the other layers interact.

 CHRONOSYSTEM
Sometimes a final system added: Chronosystem
 Refers to the temporal dimension within the model
Model changes over time
 Environmental influences are not static:
 Macrolevel (political changes, economic up & downs, and
changing values)
 Microlevel (births, new schools, changing friendships)
 Exolevel (parents changing jobs or circle of friends)
 Macrolevel (political changes, economic up & downs, and
changing values)
 ACTIVITY: OSMAN SEEN FROM AN
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE

On a piece of paper draw Bronfenbrenner’s diagram & fill it in

with what you know about Osman.

What systems interact in Osman’s life?

How may the different systems work with or against each other?

What does the interaction mean for the work of a psychologists

who wants to help Osman?
CONCLUSION

Community Psychology
 understands individuals as situated within a larger groups,
e.g. different communities
 applies psychology to communities (not just individuals)
 Emphasises the importance of social context
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system’s model provides
describes a nested system of different levels
It helps to identify the influence of social context on
individuals and their development.