CHAPTER 2: TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY IN

THE INFORMATION AGE

2.1 The need for Technology
2.2 Historical Background of Technology
2.3 Classes of Technology
2.4 The relation between Technology and Society
2.5 The physiological, psychological,& Social Impact of ICTs use on Information Society
2.6 Ergonomics
2.7 The physiology of Human computer Interaction
2.8 The psychology of Human computer Interaction
2.9 Social Interactions among ICT Users
2.10 Cyberspace

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 2.1 The need for Technology
• Technology is can be defined as the branch of knowledge that deals with the creation and use of
technical means
• and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment, drawing upon such subjects as
industrial arts, engineering, applied science, and pure science.
• It is the application of scientific knowledge to the practical aims of human life or, as it is sometimes
phrased, to the change and manipulation of the human environment.
• It is an essential tool that we cannot avoid, it plays an important part in the majority of our lives.
• Technology essentially harnesses the tools and strategies used to help us solve problems and
simply make our lives better and easier to live in some way. 
• Thus, Technology is inevitable in our everyday lives.

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• Technology serves a variety of purposes and means different things to different people.
• In today’s world technology can be found at every corner.
• From the local convenience store to your local deli shop, technology makes the world function more
efficiently.
• While some are reluctant to embrace new technological advancements, most of us have some form
of technology in our household.
• The smartphone and home computer are probably the two pieces of technology most households
have.

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• There’s no debating that technology has become integral in our daily lives, for better and maybe for
worse. Here’s how:
 World lighted up due to technology:
• The discovery of electricity drove all the darkness away and the world lit up.
• If not for the use of technology, we wouldn’t have been able to produce electric power or harness it.
• Today, it can be generated through various means because of technology.
• Heat energy (from combustion in fossil-fuel power plants, from steam in thermal power plants and
from chemical reactions in nuclear power plants) is converted into mechanical energy that drives
turbines connected to an electrical generator that produces electricity.
• Using overhead and underground cables, the electricity can then be distributed to the smallest of
households in the farthest of world’s corners, thanks to technology.
• What made it possible to use the various energy sources to generate electricity? Application of
technology. How could electricity be channeled to places far away? With the use of technology,
again.

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Technology made life easy & Supplies:
• Not just basic needs, even luxuries came our way, thanks to technology!
• How would our basic needs be met so easily if not for technology? Man could meet his needs even before the
birth of technology.
• But it was so difficult then and so rudimentary. Look at today’s food – fresh, preserved or processed, food of
any type is available at your doorstep just anytime. Clothing? Gosh, there’s so much variety and much more
comfort with different clothes for different occasions and seasons.
• Where does technology come into picture? Everywhere. From food to fashion, technology has a role to play.
How else would so much of all this be produced? Look at today’s shelters – shelters? Tall buildings, big
bungalows, luxurious apartments – how would they be built if not for technology!
• How does water reach homes? With the help of robust water storage and transmission systems.
• How do homes get the warmth and cold as and when they need? Due to heating and air conditioning systems.
• How can food be preserved without getting spoiled? Because of refrigeration.
• How can civil structures be built under water? How can skyscrapers stand so tall?
• It’s owing to advancements in civil engineering and architecture. Earthquake-resistant and fireproof structures
we see today are also a gift of developments in technology. In short, we owe our luxurious lives to technology.
• With technology advancing more people are able to have access to supplies such as fresh water and food
because technology can help deliver those items to people that otherwise couldn’t get it.
• With apps that allow you to order out or the robust technology driven devices that provide water to towns,
there are more supplies available due to technology.
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 Businesses grew due to technology:
• Owing to technology, businesses grew and so did employment opportunities.
• Businesses, small and big, need technology to thrive.
• They are growing and expanding across countries owing to technological advancements.
• It is technology that gives organizations the strength to spread their wings.
• If not for technology, how would complex industrial processes be carried out? If not for machines,
how would large-scale production of goods be possible? If not for computers, how would the
software industry have grown?
• Growing businesses create employment opportunities for people and technology plays a big role in
business growth. That’s how important technology is.

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 Communication became easy due to technology:
• Though miles apart, we can stay connected, thanks to technology.
• Technology has changed the way people communicate.
• Communication systems have evolved from pigeons carrying messages to emails and instant
messages that travel long distances in seconds.
• Cellular technology and satellite communication have increased communication speeds and made
‘connecting’ easier.
• The Internet has enabled easy exchange of information over long distances.
• Even now, you could be accessing this page from a web server in some far-off country. Just a few
clicks of your computer mouse can take you anywhere on the Internet. You enter an all new world
without even realizing it!
• Satellite and radio communication have changed the entertainment industry.
• Channels from all over the world are now available on your TV set, thanks to technology.
• Television shows and films can reach the masses within minutes after their release.
• Radio communication has made it possible to broadcast programs to the remotest of locations.

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 learning became interesting due to technology:
• The facilities of online education and the availability of interactive media have made the process of
learning so interesting.
• The role of computers and Internet in education cannot be ignored.
• The use of computers in teaching has made learning more interesting.
• Computers enable better storage and presentation of information, thus making the process of teaching
easier and more effective.
• Educational CDs are available everywhere.
• Lectures/lessons can be uploaded on websites, as PDFs or even as videos.
• This has made information more easily accessible and provided for better ways of knowledge sharing.
• Online degrees and training courses have led to spread of education.
• Today, people can continue learning even while managing their jobs, because online education gives
them the flexibility to do so.
• And all the information in the world is so widely available, thanks to the world wide web.

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 Technology boosted scientific research:
• Technology gave an impetus to scientific research and led to advancements in science.
• Technology is as important in the healthcare industry as in any other.
• Right from easy communication between healthcare professionals and patients to computer-
assisted medical procedures, it’s technology everywhere.
• In the working of patient-monitoring equipment and surgical instruments, there’s technology.
• In various diagnostic procedures from scans to complex therapies, technology has a vital role to
play.
• Many medical procedures are mechanized. Even surgeries are simulated on and assisted by
machines.
• Nanotechnology has gone on to understand things at their nano level.
• Space exploration has gone on to explore extraterrestrial life.
• Without technology we would have not have advanced so far in the space industry. NASA utilizes
technology to find new planets, monitor space and much more.
• Technology is important in learning more about the galaxy that surrounds us so that perhaps we can
uncover the hidden mysteries of our world.
• Genetic research has revealed how various traits or even hereditary diseases are transferred
across generations.
• Processes like cloning and genetic engineering are attempting to alter traits in individuals. 9
• Artificial intelligence can make machines learn, thus developing intelligence in them.
• Fourth generation technologies in mobile communication have achieved amazing speeds in voice and
video communication on cellular networks.
• Things we would never have imagined have come into reality due to application of technology.
 Security:
• Technology can make any family or business feel safer.
• There are many security devices and software available to secure your financial data, protect your home
when you are away and much more.
• Technology is important because it makes you feel more secure with every area in life for both personal
and business reasons.
• In general, at the heart of every piece of technology is automation.
• Technology automates the most complex of processes, be it in communication, education, medicine or
any other industry.
• With the application of technology, critical and time-consuming processes can be executed with ease
and in less time.
• Laborious and repetitive tasks are best done by machines (without getting bored!).
• They save human effort and time to a great extent and make life easy and comfortable.
• Nothing else has changed living the way technology has. And that’s exactly why technology is so
important today and will always be. 10
 2.2 Historical Background of Technology
• In ancient times, technology was defined by Homer and Hesiod as the spoken word of manual craft
or cunning skill (Luna, 1994).
• By 330 BC, Aristotle coined the Greek term technologia and split scientific knowledge into three
parts: theoretical science, practical science, and productive science (technology).
• The term technology , a combination of the Greek technē, “art & craft,” with logos, “word, speech,”
meant in Greece a discourse on the arts.
• It was first used to describe applied arts but now it is used to describe the advancement and
changes around us.
• The history of technology is the history of invention of tools and techniques and is similar to the
other sides of history.
• When it first appeared in English in the 17th century, it was used to mean a discussion of the
applied arts only, and gradually these “arts” themselves came to be the object of the designation.
• According to Luna (1994), the earliest use of the word technology in the US was found an a Harvard
University course on the "application of the Sciences to the Useful Arts" in 1816. 

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• The era of technology started when wheel was invented which is one of the most important
technology and after it, more and more things were invented.
• Gradually different things started to be invented but the main era of technology and invention came in
the 18 century when Industrial Revolution (IR) started and machines got invented and various types
of development and production started.
• The IR began in Great Britain, and many of the technological innovations were of British origin.
• By the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading
empire with colonies in North America and Africa, and with some political influence on the Indian
subcontinent, through the activities of the East India Company.
• The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution.

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• New knowledge has enabled people to create new things, and conversely, many scientific endeavors
are made possible by technologies which assist humans in traveling to places they could not
previously reach,
• and by scientific instruments by which we study nature in more detail than our natural senses allow.
• If we look back to the mid 20 century, there was no access of internet and it was difficult for people to
communicate with each other and had problems in their businesses,
• but with the invention of internet, people could have face to face conversation via Skype, facebook,
live streaming etc. and now people could have online banking which have ended many problems for
businessman’s.
• As more existing technologies are stacked onto each other and developed into something greater,
consumers and businesses alike can expect to see more opportunity with future technology.
• Technology will be faster, have the ability to accomplish more and everything will become more
streamlined to make getting work done, easier.

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• You’ll hear more and more about the “Internet of Things”  now and in the future.
• The deeper we dive into technology, the more it seems we try to blend the physical and virtual
worlds together.
• Smart speakers, smart homes and even smart cars are the tech wave to ride in the future, but it’s
just the beginning.
• In other words, the future happening is now.
• Or at least, it’ll be here sooner than you may think.
• Technology is constantly changing and it sometimes feels like way too much effort to keep up with a
moving target.
• Just remember - keeping up with technology adds value to your business. 
• Staying up-to-date helps ensure you don’t miss opportunities, become irrelevant or fall behind your
competitors. Remember Kodak? They taught us all an invaluable lesson: don’t be afraid to embrace
change.
• Technical history is connected to the history of science. Since technology uses resources, technical
history is tightly connected to economic history.
• From those resources, technology produces other resources, including technological artifacts used
in everyday life.

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 2.3 Classes of Technology

• There are 6 categories of technology:

I. Communication : The sending and receiving of messages.
II. Construction: The design and development of new buildings and structures
III. Energy: The power/fuel of technology. Considered the “food” of technology. All other areas
depend on it.
IV. Manufacturing: The design and development of products.
V. Transportation: The movement of people or goods. Many methods: cars, trucks, airplanes, trains,
pipelines
VI. Bio-related Technology: Technology related to life. This includes all technologies used in the
medical field.

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 2.4 The relation between Technology and Society
• The relationship between technology and society is reciprocal.
• Society drives technological change, while changing technologies in turn shape society.
• Mutual shaping suggests that society and technology are not mutually exclusive to one another and,
instead, influence and shape each other.
• The term mutual shaping was developed through Science and Technology Studies (STS) in an
attempt to explain the detailed process of technological design.
• Mutual shaping is argued to have a more comprehensive understanding of the development of new
media because it considers technological and social change as directly affecting the other.
• This process is a combination of social determinism and
 technological determinism.

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• Technological determinism (TD), coined by Thorstein Veblen, suggests that technology is the primary
catalyst for change in society.
• Following this theory, the development and implementation of technology is beyond the control of
society as it is pervasive in all elements of our lives.
• Once a technology has been created its influence on society is an expected, predetermined path.
• Technological deterministic view suggests that technology is the cause of societal change, which
shapes humans and their environments.
• An example that supports TD is the development of the printing press that accelerated the 
Protestant Reformation.
• Technological determinism is the theory that technology is an autonomous force that changes
society. 
• For example in the idea that the Internet is revolutionizing economy and society.

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• In contrast, Social Determinism (SD), popularized by social theorists Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim,
purports that social structure is the driving factor towards change in society.  
• Following this view, society is the governing force that determines social behaviour,
• and technology is created and adapted based on society's wants and needs.
• Social determinism has been observed as response to technological determinism and explains that it is
social and environmental factors which determine how technology is used and progresses.
• Social determinism is the theory that society is an autonomous force that changes technology.  
• Society then may develop new technologies, not purely out of gain, but for the purposes of self-preservation.
• For example, when atomic weaponry [nuclear weapon] was developed by the American government in 1945,
by the Soviet Union in 1949 and China in 1964, it was not for the purposes of creating a valuable commodity
to be sold and traded. Rather, it was for a perceived need of self-preservation.
• Of course, the maintenance of economic power could potentially be a secondary benefit of maintaining
military power; it is not the primary motivation for the development of this particular technology.
• In fact, throughout history it was the need for military might, rather than economic, which drove the creations
of new technologies, such as armour, catapaults, and other types of weapons.
• This example is useful in this discussion precisely because it proves that technological innovation is born not
out of a monolithic singular motivating factor, but a complex constellation of various social, historical,
scientific and economic processes.

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 Both TD and SD are cause-and-effect theories suggesting that technology and society are mutually
exclusive.
 The theory of mutual shaping suggests that technology design is a result of a synthesis of TD and
SD.
• It sees technology and society working together to facilitate change.
• Society changes as a direct result of the implementation of technology that has been created based
on society's wants and needs.
• They function collectively to shape one another. [1]
• Examples:
• Technology innovations have long been tied to social changes.
• The move to an industrial society from an agricultural society meant that people had to adjust their
social interactions.
• Agricultural societies have a few, distant and long-term relationships with people, while industrial
societies have more casual, short-term relationships.
 Technological innovations also don't work in isolation from social change and vice versa.
• For example, while the telephone was initially invented as an extension of the telegraph, with a focus
on business, the telephone quickly became a popular way for people to chat socially.
• Telephone companies then began to make innovations to enhance social interactions.
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 2.5 The physiological, psychological,& Social Impact of ICTs
use on Information Society
• The physiological Impact of ICTs use on Information Society:
• Negative impact of ICT on people:
• Reduced physical activity: users of ICT may adopt a more sedentary lifestyle.
• This can lead to health problems such as obesity, heart disease, and diabetes.
• Many countries have workplace regulations to prevent problems such as repetitive strain injury or
eyestrain, but lack of physical exercise is rarely addressed as a specific health hazard.
• The psychological Impact of ICTs use on Information Society:
• The more hours spent using ICTs and the higher the frequency of Internet usage, the higher the
level of negative psychological well-being as measured by depression and hopelessness (social
displacement hypothesis).

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• The Social Impact of ICTs use on Information Society:
• ICTs Can Have Positive Effect On The Society
• Probably the largest effect that ICT use has on society is allowing members of society to have
greatly increased access to information. This can have numerous positive effects, such as:
• a)      increasing opportunities for education
• b)      improving communication
• c)       allowing people to participate in a wider, even worldwide, society.
• It empowers people to share knowledge and advice instantaneously and set up an online shop or
website at a low cost, dramatically lowering the barriers to starting a business.
• Negative Impact Of ICTs On Society
• Probably the largest effect that ICT use has on society is allowing members of society to have
greatly increased access to information.
• This can have numerous negative effects, such as: causing a digital divide between those who can
access information and those who cannot,
• reducing levels of education and understanding due to the vast amount of incorrect and misleading
information that is available causing moral and ethical problems due to the nature of some of the
material available.
• Work from home, that is considered as a benefit of ICT, also has negative impact on a person.
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 2.6 Ergonomics
• The word ergonomics comes from the Greek word “ergon” which means work and “nomos” which
means laws.
• It’s essentially the “laws of work” or “science of work”.
• Good ergonomic design removes incompatibilities between the work and the worker and creates the
optimal work environment.
• Ergonomics draws on many disciplines to optimize the interaction between the work environment
and the worker.
• Disciplines: Anthropometry, Biomechanics, Mechanical engineering, Industrial engineering, Industrial
design, Information design, Kinesiology, Physiology, Psychology etc.
• Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of
interactions among humans and other elements of a system,
• and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize
human well-being and overall system performance.

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• Ergonomics is an approach or solution to deal with a number of problems—among them are work-
related Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs).
• At its core, workplace ergonomics is really about building a better workplace.
• When jobs are designed to match the capabilities of people, it results in better work being
produced and a better experience for the person doing it.
• Through that lens, ergonomics creates value on several fronts.
• It’s good for your people and good for your business.
• In simple definition ergonomics is the scientific study of people at work.

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 ERGONOMICS DOMAINS OF SPECIALIZATION
• According to the International Ergonomics Association, there
are three broad domains of ergonomics:

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 MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS (MSDS)
• Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries or disorders of
the muscles, nerves, tendons, joints, cartilage, and spinal
discs.
• The goal of ergonomics is to prevent soft tissue injuries
and MSDs caused by sudden or sustained exposure to force,
vibration, repetitive motion, and awkward posture.
• MSDs Characteristics:

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 CAUSE & SYMPTOMS OF MSD

• Examples of work conditions that may lead to Work related

MSD include routine lifting of heavy objects, daily exposure
to whole body vibration, routine overhead work, work with the
neck in chronic flexion position, or performing repetitive
forceful tasks.

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• At its core, workplace ergonomics is really about building a better workplace.
• When jobs are designed to match the capabilities of people, it results in better work being produced
and a better experience for the person doing it.
• Through that lens, ergonomics creates value on several fronts.
• It’s good for your people and good for your business.
 Benefits of Ergonomics
• Lower costs
• Higher productivity
• Better product quality
• Improved employee engagement
• Better safety culture
• The ergonomics improvement process systematically identifies ergonomic hazards and puts in
place engineering and administrative control measures to quantifiably reduce risk factors.

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 ERGONOMICS PROCESS
• The goal is to identify ergonomic risk factors, quantify then, and then make measurable
improvements to the workplace, ensuring that jobs and tasks are within workers' capabilities and
limitations.
• Ergonomics process includes the following:
• Assess Risk: Conducting an ergonomic assessment is a foundational element of the ergonomics
process.
• Your ergonomic improvement efforts will never get off the ground without being able to effectively
assess jobs in your workplace for musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) risk factors.
• Plan Improvements: The core goal of the ergonomics process is to make changes to your workplace
that reduce risk.
• Making changes at scale requires a significant planning effort that includes prioritizing jobs to be
improved, identifying effective improvement ideas, and cost-justifying the improvement projects.
• Measure Progress: Measurement is an important component of any successful continuous
improvement process.
• High performing ergonomics programs are constantly measured using both leading and lagging
indicators.
• Scale Solutions: By establishing a common set of tools to train your workforce, assess risk, plan
improvements, measure progress, and design new work processes, you’ll be able to scale
ergonomics best practices throughout your organization.
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 2.7 The physiology of Human computer Interaction

• Physiology relates to our physical characteristics, including height, reach and weight.

• It plays a role in computer systems development because users must be able to physically
operate both input and output devices.
• When interacting with a computer, information from the machine is received by the user.
Information from computers is received by humans through visual and/or auditory senses.
• The most common method is by viewing information expressed as text, an image or video
displayed on a screen.
• Auditory data may take the form of music, recorded of speech, text-to-speech or alert
sounds.
• Once the information is received, it is processed and interpreted by the user.
• Conversely, the user manifests his/her thoughts by entering information into the machine.
• Your commands, ideas, demands and concepts form the data your system processes and
stores. Without user input, a computer simply takes up desktop space and waits for
directions, like a lost motorist with a broken-down car.
• user can enter information into the machine by using peripheral devices: Keyboards,
Pointing Devices, Data Drives, Audio/Video Devices, Specialized Hardware

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 2.8 The psychology of Human computer Interaction
• Psychology contributes a scientific approach to how human abilities and limitations can be taken
into account in the design of effective systems.
• For an application package to be commercially successful, it need not have complex graphics,
color options, windows, toolbars and icons.
• It needs instead to be user-orientated, so that the minimum number of keystrokes or mouse
movements are needed to enable the user to achieve their objective.
• There must be a coherent logic in the interface which is repeated and reinforced as the user
employs its various features.

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 PSYCHOLOGY IN DESIGN: PRINCIPLES HELPING TO
UNDERSTAND USERS
• Some people are used to thinking of design as a purely artistic job but there is much more standing
behind it.
• The sense of beauty and inspiration is not enough to create a proficient design.
• That’s why designers should possess certain knowledge and skills of distinct sciences to do their job
right.
• And it’s not only the art of design, but it’s also about various fields of knowledge and practice which
help them work efficiently and productively.
• One of the basic studies helping designers to understand users is psychology. 
• Today the tendency of user-centered design makes designers reconsider the approach to their work
and go deeper into the understanding of the target audience.
• Donald A. Norman in his book “The Design of Everyday Things” defines design as an act of
communication, which means having a deep understanding of the person with whom the designer is
communicating.
• In order to get a better insight into people’s needs, designers are recommended to bear in mind the
psychological principles of human behavior, aspirations, and motivations.

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• The outcome of the work can be even more positive if a designer applies psychology in the creative
process since science gives a close understanding of the target audience.
• Psychology knowledge helps to create the design which will make users perform the actions they are
expected to such as making a purchase or contacting the team.
• Designers may see psychology as a complicated approach to improving the design and for that
reason neglect this part of research and analysis.
• However, you don’t need to be a Ph.D. in psychology to use it in your work effectively.
• All you need to consider are the basic principles constantly presented in design.

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• Based on the conducted research, six effective psychological principles often applied in the design process.
 Gestalt Principles
• This psychological theory is almost 100-year-old but it hasn’t lost its actuality.  
• The word “gestalt” means “unified whole” so the theory explores users’ visual perception of elements in relation to each
other.
• In other words, it shows how people tend to unify the visual elements into groups.
• The principles, on which users form the groups, include:
• Similarity. If a user sees objects that look somehow similar, they may automatically perceive them as the individual
elements of one group.
• The similarity between elements is usually defined with shape, color, size, texture or value. The similarity gives users a
sense of coherence between the design elements.
• Continuation. It is the principle according to which the human eye moves naturally from one object to the other. This
often happens through the creation of curved lines allowing the eye to flow with the line.
• Closure. It is a technique based on the human eye’s tendency to see closed shapes. Closure works where an object is
incomplete but the user perceives it as a full shape by filling in the missing parts.
• Proximity. When objects are placed in close proximity, the eye perceives them as a group rather than seen individually
even if they aren’t similar.
• Figure/Ground. This principle demonstrates the eye’s tendency to separate objects from their background. There are
lots of examples of pictures that shows two faces depending on where your eye is focused on the object or
background.
• The Gestalt principles confirm in practice that our brain tends to make tricks with us, so designers should consider that
fact during the creation process to exclude the possibility of misunderstandings. 33
 Visceral Reactions
• Have you ever had that feeling when you fall in love with the website after
the first second when you’ve opened it? Or maybe an application has
made you sick only with the quick glance at it? If yes, then you’ve already
known what’s a visceral reaction.
• This kind of reaction comes from the part of our head called “old brain”
responsible for the instincts and it reacts much faster than our
consciousness does.
• Visceral reactions are rooted in our DNA, so they can be easily predicted.
• How do designers use this knowledge?
• They aim at creating a positive aesthetic impression with the design. It’s
not that difficult to guess what looks nice to people and what doesn’t if
you know your target audience and their needs.
• So, the tendency of using the high-resolution beautiful photos or the
colorful pictures at landing pages, websites or any other web and mobile
products is not accidental. 34
Psychology of Colors
• A science studying the influence of colors on the human’s mind, behavior, and reactions is called the  
psychology of colors.
• In a few words, the main idea of the study is that the colors have a great impact on the users’ perception.
• That’s why designers should choose the colors knowingly to make sure their work presents the right
message and tune.
• Here is the list of the basic colors and the meanings which they are typically associated with:
• Red. The color usually associates with passionate, strong, or aggressive feelings. It symbolizes both good
and bad feelings including love, confidence, passion, and anger.
• Orange. An energetic and warm color bringing the feelings of excitement.
• Yellow. This is the color of happiness. It symbolizes the sunlight, joy, and warmth.
• Green. The color of nature. It brings calming and renewing feelings. Also, may signify inexperience.
• Blue. It often represents some corporate images. It usually shows calm feelings but as a cool color, it also
associates with distance and sadness.
• Purple. Long associated with royalty and wealth since many kings wore purple clothes. It’s also a color of
mystery and magic.
• Black. The color has a great number of meanings. It associates with tragedy and death. It signifies a mystery.
It can be traditional and modern. Everything depends on how you employ it and which colors go with it.
• White. The color means purity and innocence, as well as wholeness and clarity.
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• Recognition Patterns:
• You may have noticed that websites or applications united with one theme usually have common
patterns in their design.
• The reason is the users’ psychology.
• The thing is that people visiting a website or using an application are expecting to see certain things
associated with the definite kind of product.
• For example, visiting a website of a barbershop, the users are not expecting to see bright colors or
pictures with cats or anything like this because if they do see it, this will definitely make them think of
a website as an untrustworthy resource.
• However, not only the colors and pictures matter.
• Some obvious and common things such as a list of blog posts on the front page of a blog or the
filters on the e-commerce website are also important for successful navigation.
• Users become accustomed to things quickly and their absence makes them feel uncomfortable.

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Scanning Patterns:
• Before reading a web page, people scan it to get a sense of whether they are interested.
• According to different studies, including the publications by Nielsen Norman Group, UXPin team, and
others, there are several popular scanning patterns for web pages, among which “F” and “Z” patterns.
• F-pattern is referred to as the most common eye-scanning pattern, especially for web pages with a big
amount of content.
• A user first scans a horizontal line on the top of the screen, then moves down the page a bit and reads
along the horizontal line which usually covers a shorter area.
• And the last one is a vertical line down on the left side of the copy where they look for keywords in the
initial sentences of the paragraphs.
• It usually occurs on text-heavy pages like blogs, news platforms, thematic editorials, etc.
• Z-pattern is applied to pages that are not so heavily concentrated on the copy.
• A user first scans across the top of the page starting from the top left corner, looking for important
information, and then goes down to the opposite corner at a diagonal, finishing with the horizontal line at
the bottom of the page, again from left to right.
• This is a typical model of scanning for landing pages or websites not loaded with copy and not requiring
scrolling down the page, which means that all the core data is visible in the pre-scroll area.
• Knowing these patterns, designers can place the elements in an effective way for users’ perception and
help them perform expected actions. 37
 Hick’s Law
• The law states that the more options users are exposed to, the longer it takes them to make a
decision.
• This means that the more options you give to users, be it products to choose or pictures to look at,
the more time and energy it takes to make a decision about the next step of the interaction.
• The possible result here is that the users make the choices but get unpleasant feelings after using
the product, or in the worst case, they may not want to take such a significant effort and just leave.
• That’s why designers are recommended to keep any options including buttons, pictures, pages to a
minimum. Removing unnecessary choices, you make the usability of the product more effective.

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 2.9 Social Interactions among ICT Users
• ICTs have emerged as instruments of social interaction.
• Their extraordinary influence permeates all human affairs, and their revolutionary impact affects the
way people live, work, and learn,
• as well as the way governments, private organizations, and citizens relate.
• ICT is used in a number of ways to communicate and interact with people across the world with so
many alternatives you can choose the way that best suits you or use a mixture of them all.

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• Mobile Phones-
• Mobile phones are an excellent way to interact and communicate with people using a phone you can hold a
detailed conversation with someone anywhere across the world as if they were standing right next to you, the
signal is clear and fast making long distance communication easier on a whole new level!
• Nearly everyone has a phone, from the range available its not surprising from the first release of the mobile
phone of cell phone it was a huge hit the ability to contact anyone,
• anywhere this is extremely useful such as if you breakdown in your car on a deserted road you could be
waiting for days before anyone finds you however with a mobile you can call for help with the huge demand
for phones a range of companies provide a number of different types to suit every person so if you only want
a phone to keep in touch with others they come dirt cheap,
• however there are also a large number of expensive phones that contain all kinds of  weird and wonderful
possibilities.

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• Emails-: After its invention in 1971 email quickly took off however it wasn't until after the
creation of the world wide web that it was used wide scale.
• Email has become an essential part of working life  and a easy way to communicate with
people.
• The idea was to be able to send messages between two computers and reduce the need
to phone or send a letter. 
• Nowadays email can be accessed on phones ,computers, laptops, i pads and i phones so
not only can you message at home you can also message on the go meaning you are not
limited to when you need to contact someone with important information. 
• Unlike phoning the recipient doesn't need to be available at the time of send but can
access the information hours or days later from any computer in the world with a internet
connection, whenever they have time.
• Email is used in shops and businesses to send information to clients such as deals and
important dates

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• Social Networking-
• There are hundreds of social networking sites available on the Internet, Phones and Computers.
• Sites such as Facebook , Twitter and MSM, work alongside email, by being able to contact people
as well as the ability to upload photos this is yet another way to communicate.
• Using these sites you can keep in touch with peers and associates, build a detailed profile of
yourself online, connect with other people: friends or strangers and view the information they have
to offer so you don't have to even leave your home to interact with people in a new way.
• However social networking was basically designed to replace human contact, this means a higher
percentage of socially awkward people who will have more difficulty getting jobs!
• Video Conferencing-
• Video conferencing is widely used in businesses across the world giving the ability to hold a
conference from the comfort of your own home wit anyone across the world not only can you talk
webcams are used to provide live video feed of the person you are talking to this means all the
necessary details can be discussed without the waste of cost and time of actually travelling to
speak with someone!
• Video conferencing can be used in families so people can talk to their relatives about daily matters
without having to go and meet them it can be also used to talk to friends and colleges as a way to
catch up, pass the time or discuss this weeks homework from school!

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 2.10 CYBERSPACE
• Cyberspace: Describes the non-physical space created by computer networks, where people can
communicate in different ways. 
• The term cyberspace has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with the
Internet and the diverse Internet culture.
• Cyberspace is the global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent
network of IT infrastructures,
• including the Internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded processors
and controllers.
• Cyberspace can be viewed as three layers (physical, logical, and social) made up of five
components (geographic, physical network, logical network, cyber persona, and persona).

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• Physical:
The physical layer includes the geographic component and the physical network component.
• The geographic component is the physical location of elements of the network.
• While geopolitical boundaries can easily be crossed in cyberspace at a rate approaching the speed of light, there is
still a physical aspect tied to the other domains.
• The physical network component includes all the hardware and infrastructure (wired, wireless, and optical) that
supports the network and the physical connectors (wires, cables, radio frequency, routers, servers, and computers).  
• Logical:
The logical layer contains the logical network component which is technical in nature and consists of the logical
connections that exist between network nodes.
• Nodes are any devices connected to a computer network.
• Nodes can be computers, personal digital assistants, cell phones, or various other network appliances. On an
Internet protocol (IP) network, a node is any device with an IP address.  
• Social:
The social layer comprises the human and cognitive aspects and includes the cyber persona component and the
persona component.
• The cyber persona component includes a person’s identification or persona on the network (e-mail address,
computer IP address, cell phone number, and others).
• The persona component consists of the people actually on the network. An individual can have multiple cyber
personas (for example, different e-mail accounts on different computers) and a single cyber persona can have
multiple users. 
• “Cybersecurity threats represent one of the most serious national security, public safety, and economic challenges
we face as a nation.”  44
• Cyber crime is a series of organized crime attacking cyberspace and cyber security.
• Types of cybercrimes:
• Email and internet fraud.
• Identity fraud (where personal information is stolen and used).
• Theft of financial or card payment data.
• Theft and sale of corporate data.
• Cyberextortion (demanding money to prevent a threatened attack).
• Ransomware attacks (a type of cyberextortion).
• Cyber security is the practice of defending computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, networks,
and data from malicious attacks.
• It's also known as information technology security or electronic information security.  
•  Examples of Cybersecurity:
• Encryption: Encrypting data in storage, transit and use.
• Authentication: Securely identifying people and digital entities.
• Authorization: Defining and implementing privileges for computing resources.
• Sandboxing:  run code, observe and analyze and code in a safe, isolated environment on a network that
mimics end-user operating environments. 
• Sandboxing is designed to prevent threats from getting on the network and is frequently used to inspect
untested or untrusted code.
• Internal Controls: are processes that mitigate risk and reduce the chance of an unwanted risk outcome.45