CELL

“A cell is defined as the smallest,

basic unit of life that is
responsible for all of life’s
processes.”
Discovery of Cells
Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665.
He observed a piece of bottle cork under a
compound microscope and noticed
minuscule structures that reminded him of
tiny rooms occupied by monks(cellula)
Consequently, he named the structure as
CELLS. However, his compound
microscope had limited magnification,
hence, he could not see any details in the
structure. To this limitation, Hooke
concluded that these were non-living
entities.
Later in 1674 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
observed cells under another compound
microscope with higher magnification.
This time, he had noted that the cells
exhibited some form of movement
(motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek
concluded that these microscopic entities
were “alive.” Eventually, after a host of
other observations, these entities were
named as animalcules.
The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by
Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann,
and Rudolf Virchow which states that all
organisms are composed of one or more cells, that
all cells come from pre-existing cells, that vital
functions of an organism occur within cells, and
that all cells contain the hereditary information
necessary for regulating cell functions and for
transmitting information to the next generation.
ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CELL

• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an

organism.
• The cell interior is organised into different individual
organelles surrounded by a separate membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information
necessary for reproduction and cell growth.
• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles in the cytoplasm.
ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CELL

• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is

mainly responsible for the energy transactions vital for
the survival of the cell.
• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the
internal organisation of the cell by synthesising selective
molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to
their appropriate locations
There are two types of cells:
Prokaryotic cells
- Are usually independent.
- e.g. bacteria, primitive gray algae, archae
bacteria
Eukaryotic cells
- Are often found in multicellular organisms.
- All other organisms are called eukaryotes.
- e.g plants, animals, fungi, protozoa,
uni-cellular yeast and true algae.
DIFFERRENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Cell wall Usually present; chemically complex in nature When present, chemically simple in nature

Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have a nucleoid region in the Present. Comparatively larger in size and linear in shape
cell
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are absent Lysosomes and centrosomes are present
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell
 MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE
4. Each subcellular structure the has
unique shape and function.
5. Some diseases are due to a lack of
subcellular structures.
e.g. Zellwegers syndrome is due to lack of
peroxisomes.
 MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE
1. All living organisms are made up of
cells.
2. Human body contains wide variety of
cells that differ in structure and function.
3. Human cell contains subcellular
structures like nucleus, mitochondria,
lysosomes, peroxisomes etc.
 MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE
7. Lysosomal enzymes are involved in
spreading of cancer.
8. Lack of lysosomes or its enzymes
results in lysosomal diseases.
9. Growth of cells requires cell divisions.
Cell cycle encompasses all the events of
cell
10. Cells are not immortal. They have
finite life span. Because of this humans
are not immortal.
 MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE
11. Cell death is crucial for shaping of organs
APOPTOSI
S

during development and for recovery from

injuries.
12. Biochemistry explores molecular
mechanisms of normal cellular processes as
well as diseases.
13. Mitochondria is involved in apoptosis.
14. Endoplasic reticulum, lysosomes and CEL
golgi complex are involved in the integration L
of
pro-apoptic signals.
MOLECULAR
COMPOSITIO
N OF THE
CELL
1. WATER

Water accounts for about 70-75% of the

weight of the cell. Other cellular constituents
are either dissolved or suspended in water.
2. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1. Organic compounds accounts for 25-30% of the cell weight.
2. They are nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides (carbohydrates)
and lipids.
• Proteins accounts 10-20% of the weight of the cell.
• Nucleic acids account 7-10% of the cell weight.
• Polysaccharides usually account for 2-5% of the cell weight.
• About 3% of cell weight is due to lipids. Lipids content may be
higher in adipocytes or fat cells.
• Proteins may account more of cell weight in cells like
erythrocytes.
3. Other low molecular weight organic compounds may account for
4% of cell weight.
• They are monosaccharides, aminoacids, fatty acids, purine and
pyrimidine nucleotides, peptides, hormones, vitamins and
coenzymes.
3. INORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
1. Inorganic compounds account for the rest
of the cell weight.
2. They are cations like sodium, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, copper, iron and anions
like chloride, phosphate, bicarbonate,
sulfate, iodide and fluoride.
EUKARYOTIC
CELL
STRUCTURE
AND
FUNCTION
In eukaryotes,
cells aggregate to
form tissues or
organs and these
are further
organized to form
whole organism.
• In humans, eukaryotic
cells exist in large
number of sizes and
shapes to perform
varieties of functions.
• E.g., nerve cells differ
from liver cell which
differ from muscle cell
and they differ in
function also.
• Though the eukaryotic cells differ in sizes and shapes they have
certain common structural features.
• Further, eukaryotes contain subcellular structures and well defined
nucleus.
• Cells are surrounded by membranes, it separates the cells from
surrounding and it is called as plasma or cell membrane.
• The other subcellular organelles are also composed in parts by
membranes.
A typical eukaryotic cell is shown in Figure
1.1
Subcellular
Structures and their
Functions
Cell Membrane

Structure
1. The outermost structure of the cell that decides its contour is the cell membrane.
2. It is a lipid bi-layer. It also consist of proteins and small amounts of
carbohydrates

Functions
1. It is semi permeable, only selected compounds are allowed to pass through from
outside. The selective permeability is responsible for the maintenance of internal
environment of the cell and for creating potential difference across the membrane.
3. The modification of the cell membrane results in formation of specialized
structures like
axon of nerves, microvilli of intestinal epithelium and tail of spermatids.
Nucleus

Structure
1. We can locate the nucleus at the center of the cell.
2. It is surrounded by double-layer membrane
3. The two membranes fuse periodically to produce nuclear pores. Exchange of material between
nucleus and rest of the cell occurs through nuclear pores.
4. The outer nuclear membrane continuous with other cytomembranes. In some eukaryotic
cells, like erythrocyte nucleus is absent. In spermatozoa, nucleus accounts for 90% of
cell whereas in other cells nucleus accounts for less than 10% of the cell. In prokaryotes,
nucleus is not well defined.

Functions
1. Nucleus is the information centre of eukaryotic cell. More than 90% of the cellular DNA
is present in the nucleus. It is mainly concentrated in the form of chromosomes.
2. Human cell contains 46 chromosomes. These chromosomes are composed of nucleoprotein
chromatin, which consist of DNA and proteins histones. Some RNA may also present
in the nucleus.
3. In prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria), the DNA is present as thread in the cytosol.
Nucleolus
Structure and Function
These are small dense bodies present in the nucleus. Their number varies from cell to cell.
There is no membrane surrounding them. They are continuous with nucleoplasm. Protein
accounts for 80% of nucleolus remainder is DNA and RNA.

Nucleoplasm
It is also called as nuclear matrix. It contains enzymes involved in the synthesis of DNA and
RNA.

Cytosol, Cytoplasm or Cell Sap

Structure
1. The extra nuclear cell content that possess both orgenelles and other material constitutes cytoplasm.
Material other than subcellular components in the cytoplasm makes up the cytosol or cell sap.
2. Sometimes soluble portion of the cell is referred as cytosol. Cytoplasm accounts for
70-75% weight of the cytosol.
Functions
1. Numerous enzymes, proteins and many other solutes are found in cytosol.
2. Cytosol is the main site for glycolysis, HMP shunt, activation of amino acids and fatty acid synthesis.
Mitochondria
Structure
1. Are the second largest structures in the cell.
2. Generally mitochondria are ellipsoidal in shape.
3. Mitochondria consist of outer and inner membranes. The outer membrane is
composed of equal amount of protein and lipids.
4. The lipids are mainly phospholipids and cholesterol. The outer membrane
functions as a limiting membrane and permeable to many compounds.
6. The inner membrane consist of 75% protein and remainder is lipid.
7. The inner membrane is convoluted to form number of invaginations known as
cristae extending to matrix. These cristae are covered with knob like structures, which
are composed of head piece,
stalk and a base piece.
Functions
1. Mitochondria is the power house of the cell. It is responsible for the production of
energy in the form of ATP. The knob like structures function in electron transport and
oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Mitochondria also contain other energy producing pathways like citric-acid cycle, fatty
acid oxidation and ketone-body oxidation.
3. Some reactions of gluconeogenesis and urea cycle also occurs in mitochondria.
Mitochondria is capable of synthesizing some of its proteins.
4. Mitochondria which are essential for life because of their involvement in ATP
production, also pay key role in programmed cell death of several types of cells.
5. In humans, mitochondria is derived from mother only. Hence, origin of mother of
humans have been traced.
6. The inter mitochondrial membrane space is
home for several lethal proteins like pro-death enzymes.
Lysosomes
Structure
1. They are small vesicles present in cytoplasm.
2. They are surrounded by a membrane.
Functions
1. A lysosome contains digestive enzymes. They break down excess or worn-out cell
parts. They may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria. If the cell is damaged
beyond repair, lysosomes can help it to self-destruct in a process called programmed cell
death, or apoptosis.Medical Importance
2. Lack of one or more of lysosomal enzymes cause accumulation of materials in the cell
resulting in lysosomal diseases.
3. In some disease like arthritis and muscular dystrophy, lysosomal enzymes are released
to cause uncontrolled destruction of surrounding tissues.
4. Lysosomes are involved in integration of pro-apoptic signals.
5. Lysosomal proteases cathepsins are involved in spreading of cancer (metastasis).
Peroxisomes
Structure
1. Are also small vesicles surrounded by a membrane. They are also called as
microbodies.
Functions
1. They contain enzymes of H2O2 metabolism. The concentration of protein in
peroxisomes is very high and they may occur in crystallines form. The enzymes of
H2O2 catabolism present in peroxisomes are peroxidase and catalase.
2. Peroxisomes also contain other enzymes like D, L-amino acid oxidase, uric acid
oxidase and L-hydroxy fatty acid oxidation that generates H2O2. Glycerophospholipids
are also synthesized in peroxisomes.
Medical Importance
1. Lack of peroxisomes result in Zellwegers syndrome.
Cytomembranes
There is an extensive network of membranes in the cytoplasm.
These membranes are called
as cytomembranes. They are divided into endoplasmic reticulum
and golgi complex or apparatus. The endoplasmic reticulum is
further subdivided into rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RFR) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Structure
1. It is continuous with outer nuclear membrane.
2. The cytoplasmic surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum is
coated with ribosomes.
Membrane enclosed channels of endoplasmic reticulam are
called cisternae. The ribosomes
are complexes of RNA and protein.
Functions
1. Ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum are involved
in protein synthesis.
2. Protein synthesized, enters cisternae and later extruded.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Structure
1. It is continuous with rough endoplasmic reticulum. It
differs from RER by the absence of ribosomes. When isolated
SER is called as microsomes.

Functions
1. SER of intestinal cells is involved in formation of
triglycerides.
2. In the adrenal cortex, SER is the site of steroid formation.
3. Cytochrome P450 dependent monooxygenases are present
in liver cell SER.
(Golgi Apparatus) Functions

1. The golgi bodies are involved in secretion. Material

produced in the cell for export is processed by golgi body . The
vesicles e.g. phagocytes is released to exterior by the process known
as exocytosis. The digestive enzymes of pancreas and insulin are
produced and released in this way.
2. Golgi apparatus helps in the formation of other subcellular
organelles like lysosomes
and peroxisomes.
3. Golgi apparatus is involved in protein targeting. It directs proteins In these cells, phagocytosis is a
to be incorporated mechanism by which microorganisms
into membranes of other subcellular structures. It is also involved in can be engulfed or contained, killed and
processed for antigen presentation and
glycosylation and sulfation of proteins. represents a vital facet of the innate
immune response to pathogens, and
plays an essential role in initiating the
4. Golgi apparatus is involved in integration of proapoptic signal. It adaptive immune response.
generates preapoptic mediator ganglioside GD3.
https://youtu.be/Q84-mP0cGWQ

Medical Importance https://youtu.be/pYBwHUCgWdQ

Some cases of diabetes are due to defective processing of insulin in
golgi complex
Golgi Apparatus

Structure
1. It consist of cluster of paired cytomembranes. The margins of these cytomembranes
are flattened.
2. It also contains several small vesicles, which are pinched off from the flattened
margins of membranes.
Intracellular Ion Channels

• Membrane of endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex and nucleus has ion

channels.
They are involved in transport of ions between cytosol and these intracellular
components.
e.g. Calcium and chloride ion channels which are involved in the transport of

components into cytosol.

• Vacuoles - Some animal cells contain vacuoles. They are membrane enclosed
vesicles containing fluid. Mostly they contain nutrients.
• Cell Coat - Some mammalian cells contain thin coat known as cell coat on the
outer surface of the cell membrane. The cell coat is flexible and sticky. It is
composed of mucopolysaccharides, glycolipids and glycoproteins. The
adhesive properties of cell and organization of tissue is controlled by cell coat.
Cytoskeletons

These are filament like structures made up of proteins present in cytoplasm.

Non-muscle cells perform mechanical work with these intracellular network of
proteins.

(a) Microfilaments. They are actin like filaments. They form loose web beneath
cell membrane.
(b) Myosin Fibres. Same as that of myosin of skeletal muscle.
(c) Microtubules. Tubulin is the building block of microtubules. Dendrites,
axons of nerve cells and sperm cells contain microtubules. The sperm cell moves
with the help of flagellum, a microtubule. These cyto skeletons are involved in
the maintenance of cell shape, cell division, cell motility, phagocytosis,
endocytosis and exocytosis.
(d) Intermediate Filaments. They are not involved in movement of cell. They are
stable components of cytoskeleton. Neurofilament of neurons, glial filaments of
glial cells and keratin of epithelial cells are some examples of intermediary
filaments.
CELL CYCLE
https://youtu.be/6tonYjAHO9Q

MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
• In all forms of life growth requires cell division.
• However, some cells divide even after growth like erythrocytes and
epithelial cells of intestine.
• Sequence of events associated with cell division occur in cyclic
manner. Hence, cell cycle consist of sequence of events, which
occur in cyclic manner during cell division.
CELL DEATH
MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
1. Cells are not immortal i.e., they have finite life span. In the body, cells are formed and
destroyed. So, cells are in dynamic state.
2. Cell division and cell death are two opposite processes required to maintain constant
tissue volume (tissue homeostasis).
3. Further cell death plays an important role in shaping tissues and organs during development or during
recovery from injuries.
4. Cell death may occur due to several external factors also.
There are three types of cell death.
1. Necrosis: It is also termed as cell murder. Cells undergo necrotic death if cell membrane is damaged or
due to decreased oxygen supply and if energy (ATP) production is
blocked. https://youtu.be/1vaEVcMfa1E
2. Apoptosis: This type of cell death occurs in tissue turnover. Individual cells or groups
of cells undergo this type of death. Aged cells in the body are removed by apoptosis.
It is a genetically programmed cell death. In the initial stages of apoptosis, cell
shrinks, followed by fragmentation and finally these fragments are eliminated by
phagocytosis. https://youtu.be/-vmtK-
3. Atrophy: This type of cell death occurs in the absence of essential survival factors.
bAC5E
Survival factors required by the cell are produced by other cells. Absence of nerve
growth factor leads to atrophy of nerves. It is also genetically programmed cell death. https://youtu.be/GZVvdNlArjA
 BIOCHEMISTRY, CELL AND DISEASE
• Biochemistry explains all cellular or biological events in chemical terms.
• The chemical reactions that occur in biological systems are called biochemical reactions.
• Biochemistry also explains how different sequences of biochemical reactions interact with
each other for survival of cell (organism) under various conditions.
• When all the biochemical events occur in proper order, the cell or body remains normal.
Blocks in biochemical events manifest as disease.
• So, every known (to be known) disease must (may) be due to blocks in biochemical events.
• The goal of biochemistry is to explain all diseases in molecular terms. Therefore,
biochemistry knowledge is required
• When one wishes to treat (cure) a disease. In addition, biochemistry suggests ways to
manipulate life forms for the benefit of mankind.
ACTIVITY 1
Feb. 11, 2022

1. In your notebook. Draw an animal cell diagram and label the

different cell organelle.
2. Write down in your notes function of each cell organelle.
3. Write down some medical importance in some organelles
4. Name organic and inorganic substances present in cell.
5. What is machropage and neutrophils and its relation to
phagocytosis
6. Write down and define apoptosis,necrosis and atrophy
ACTIVITY 2
Feb. 11, 2022

1. In your notebook draw the Animal Cell and Plant Cell

2. Label them
3. Differentiate the two, you can make a lecture note by providing
a table or bulleted notes.