Crop Science 1.

1
Principles of Crop Science

Chapter 4
FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION
Factors Affecting
Crop Production
FACTORS AFFECTING CROP
PRODUCTION
Crop production can be viewed from two perspectives:
1 – at the CROP level
2 – at the SYSTEMS level

Crop production at the crop level:

In the form of an equation:
Y = f [G + E + (G x E)]

where, Y = yield
G = genotype
E = environment
G x E = interaction of genotype and environment
Genotype and Environment

Genotype - genetic design of a plant which dictates

the ceiling of how much a variety/cultivar can
yield.
- genes controlling a character (yield, plant
height, taste, color, etc.)
- varies among and even within species
- sets the ultimate limit for plant variation

Environment - any factor external to the plant that

influences its growth and development.
- may be biotic or abiotic
examples are climate, soil, topography, pest and
diseases
G x E interaction

A high yielding variety grown under poor

environment will have low yield.
A low yielding variety grown in optimum (good)
environment will still have low yield.
► An ideal genotype therefore is one that has a
wide range of environmental
► An optimum environment is one that poses a
minimum of constraints to crop growth and
development
► Through G x E interaction, some particular
elements of the environment may draw
varying responses from different genotypes.
Practical implications:

1. Need for continuous development of improved

varieties/cultivars.
2. Develop management practices that can remove or
avoid environmental constraints.
3. Continuously assess G x E interactions
Systems level

At the production SYSTEM level

environment

inputs systems output

(resources) (yield)
in a production system,
inputs – controllable, manageable resources such as
seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
output – yield
environment – uncontrollable factors external to the
system
system – component crops, processes and activities
Practical implications

1. Man (management has only partial control of the

system.
2. Certain factors/conditions are given to which the
system has to fit or adjust.
3. The design of the system emanates from man (his
needs, objectives, knowledge and capabilities)
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

► includes CLIMATIC or above-ground factors and EDAPHIC

or soil factors (abiotic factors)
► also includes pests and beneficial organisms (biotic
factors)
ABIOTIC FACTORS

Climatic factors:
Definitions of terms:
Climate - the seasonal pattern of a particular
place occuring from year to year.
- a composite of day-to-day
weather conditions described in both
averages and variability
Weather - a momentary state of the
atmosphere brought about by the
combination of elements, e.g., temperature,
pressure, moisture content, air movements,
radiation, etc.
- day-to-day changes of the state
or condition of the atmosphere
Macroclimate vs. Microclimate

Macroclimate - the climatic environment one meter

above the plant canopy
Microclimate - generally refers to the climatic
environment one meter below the canopy in the case of
tall plants or the climate within the leaf canopy for
short (below one meter) plants.
Climatic elements

1. Precipitation– is any form of water particles falling on the

ground in liquid or solid form (rainfall, hail, snow, etc.)
Average rainfall in the Philippines = 2553 mm (Luzon – 2724 mm;
Visayas – 2391.7 mm; Mindanao – 2349.8 mm
Role of water in plants
a. as a reactant in many biological reactions
b. enters into the structure of biological molecules
c. serve as medium of transport of nutrients and other
substances
d. helps regulate plant temperature
Categories of plants based on need for moisture
e. xerophytes - desert plants
f. hydrophytes - aquatic plants
g. mesophytes - land plants; most economically important
plants
Precipitation

Factors affecting amount and distribution of

rainfall
► Topography greatly influences the amount
and distribution of rainfall
► Mountain ranges present barriers to clouds,
causing them to rise to higher elevations and
generally colder temperatures causing vapor
to condense and water to fall on the
windward sides as the clouds pass over,
leaving the leeward side relatively dry.
Example is Los Banos in Laguna and Sto.
Tomas in Batangas. Sto. Tomas is drier than
Los Banos due to the presence of Mt.
Makiling.
► Air circulation patterns affect the seasonal
distribution of precipitation.
Precipitation

Rain formation requires

a. high relative humidity (RH)
b. sufficiently low temperature (below
condensation point)
c. condensation nuclei
d. sufficiently low pressure
Drought – insuficiency of rainfall/moisture which
seriously affect plant growth.
► Absolute drought – 29 consecutive days
without rainfall of at least 0.25 mm.
► Partial drought – 15 consecutive days without
rainfall of at least 0.25 mm.
Temperature

2. Temperature – the degree of hotness or coldness of

a body
- every chemical, physiological and
biological process in plants is influenced by
temperature.
Three (3) cardinal temperatures
a. minimum temperature – that temperature below
which the velocity of the reaction becomes zero,
due to the deactivation of enzymes.
b. optimum temperature – temperature where the
velocity of the reaction is at maximum.
c. maximum temperature – that temperature above
which the velocity of the reaction becomes zero,
due to the denaturation of enzymes.
Temperature

Temperature of the environment depends upon

a. solar radiation – vertical rays are more
energy efficient/unit area than oblique rays
(in polar regions).
b. surrounding land masses or bodies of water.
c. altitude – for every 100 meter rise in
elevation, there is a 0.6 C decrease in
temperature.
In the Philippines: high elevation – 13. 2 –
24.6 C
low elevation – 23.3 – 31.5 C
Temperature

Classification of crops according to temperature

requirement
a. cool season crops – e.g., cole crops like cabbage,
broccoli, cauliflower
b. warm season crops – e.g., rice, banana
c. tropical – e.g., coconut
d. sub-tropical – e.g., citrus
Temperature

Effect of temperature on crops

► vernalization requirement of certain crops for flowering (e.g., celery
seed exposed to 4.4-10 C for 10 days under imbibed condition)
► effect on crop maturation (crops mature faster in hotter environments
than n colder ones)
Wind

3. Wind or air in horizontal motion

► normal wind speed in the Philippines = 7.2 km/hr
► at 30 km/hr = leaf tearing may already occur
especially in banana and abaca
Wind

Effects of wind on plants

a. increase transpiration
b. destructive effects of strong winds,
typhoon (e.g., crop lodging, grain
shattering)
c. sterility due to loss of pollens
d. disease spore dispersal
e. reduced CO2 levels especially in
enclosed spaces
f. affects plant form
Wind

► Air circulation in the atmosphere

results from the sun’s radiation falling
more directly on the tropical regions
than on the polar regions, the warmer
air rises and flow forward the poles,
cools and sinks as cold polar air and
then returns toward the equator as
ground flow

► The interactions cause the

establishment of regions, large and
small, each with a different climate.
Solar radiation

4. Solar radiation or light – energy given out by

the sun through radiation
Three aspects important to plants
a. light intensity – expressed in foot-candle or
lux.
- plants are generally spaced so that
maximum leaf area is exposed to sunlight
- some plants do not require high light
intensity (shade-loving) because they have
low light saturation point.
- some plants require subdued light to
survive. e.g., some ornamentals
Solar radiation

b. duration or daylength – expressed in hours per day

c. wavelength – expressed in Angstrom or nanometers or
identified by color

- not all wavelengths of light are

equally effective
in Photosynthesis - red and blue
wavelength
in Photoperiodism - far red and
red wavelength
Solar radiation

Effect of light on plants

a. photoenergetic effect – direct effect
on photosynthesis (intercepted
radiation is important)
b. photocybernetic effect – effect on
plant development (light quality is
rather important than quantity of
light)
c. photoperiodic effect (or response) –
plant response as conditioned by
daylength
Solar radiation

Classification of plants according to

light intensity requirements
a.Heliophytes - sun loving
- light saturated at
about 5000 foot candles
- examples: banana,
chrysanthemum, corn, cotton,
cowpea,cucurbits, eggplant,
papaya, peanut, sugarcane
Solar radiation

b. Sciophytes - shade loving

- light saturated at about
500 foot candles
- examples: ginger, african
violet, ferns, philidendron, coffee,
begonia, black
pepper
► Plants belonging to the intermediate
group may be converted through
acclimatization into either heliophytes
or sciophytes.
Solar radiation

Classification of plants according to

photoperiodic response
a. day neutral – will flower over a wide range of daylength
- examples: banana, citrus,
coconut, corn, tomato
b. short-day plant – requires a dark period exceeding some
critical length to
induce flowering
- examples: coffee, kenaf,
lima bean, rice, sesame, soybean,
winged bean
Solar radiation

⭶for cassava, sweet potato,

taro and yambean, short-day
condition is required for tuber
formation
c. long-day plant – inhibited
from flowering when the
dark period exceeds some
critical length
- examples: aster, castor oil,
onion, radish
Relative humidity

5. Relative humidity – proportion/amount of moisture in the

air
Average RH in the Philippines = 82%
Importance in Crop Production
a. pest and disease incidences e.g., powdery wildew
b. postharvest behavior of commodities
► very dry atmosphere wilting
► high humidity not conducive to grain drying
► enhance mold, aflatoxin buildup
c. supplying water requirement during crop production
► low RH, high temperature high evapotranpiration
► high RH, high temperature low evapotranspiration
Gases

6. Gaseous environment
Carbon dioxide
► hardly limiting in crop production except at no
or little air circulation in dense plant
populations
► critical in enclosed environments like
greenhouses
Air pollution
► becomes crucial as the world becomes more
industrialized
► toxic substances: lead, sulfur dioxide, smog,
carbon monoxide, hydrofluoric acid (HF)
Cloudiness

7. Cloudiness
► cloud, including smog and fog, affect the amount
of radiation received by plants. Most of the solar
radiation is reflected by clouds.
► clouds are also believed to be responsive for the
GREENHOUSE EFFECT:
- clouds, acting similarly as the glass covering of a
greenhouse, stop the transfer of thermal radiant
energy from the earth to the cold sky thereby
slowing down the cooling process of the earth.
- on the global scale air and water molecules
present on clouds trap long-wave radiation and
reduce their outward flow to the space because
the shorter wave lengths reaching the earth’s
surface when re-radiated as longer waves cannot
pass through the clouds as readily as the shorter
wavelengths.
EDAPHIC FACTORS

⭶ refers to the soil as a factor in crop production

A. What is soil?
l

air

water
mineral water (25%)

organic
matter + organisms
Soil as a three-phase system

✓Solid – mineral + organic matter

✓Liquid – soil solution
✓Gas – various gases
Soil properties

B. Soil Properties in relation to Crop Production

Physical

Chemical crops

Biological

soil properties
Physical properties

1. Physical Properties
1.1 Soil Texture
- the relative proportion of primary soil particles,
i.e., sand, silt and clay in a particular soil
particle size
► sand > .02 µ
► silt .02-.002 µ
► clay < .002 µ
- soil texture range:
sand loam clay
<10% ~equal >4.5%
clay proportion of sand clay
S, H and clay
Physical properties

- importance of soil texture to crop production

Heavy soil Light soil
✔Tillability difficult easy
✔Aeration less more
✔Water-holding high low capacity
✔Nutrient-holding high low
capacity
Implications:
► the desirable soil texture for crops is that in
between heavy and light, i.e., heavy soil, to allow
for easy workability and sufficient water and
nutrient holding capacity.
Physical properties

1.2Soil Structure:
- the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates.
How soil structure is formed?
✔ped natural structure
✔dod structure formed with the application of external
force, e.g., plowing
✔organic matter - binding agent

Types of soil structure

► blocky
► granular
► columnar
► no structure
Physical properties

Importance of soil structure to crops:

► to some extent, soil tillability is
related to structure. There are soils
that are relatively easier to break up
because of their structure.
► soil structure influences the
infiltration of water through the soil.
► soil structure influences soil aeration
which is critical during seed
germination and seedling
emergence.1.3 Soil Depth
► particularly, the top soil relative to
the subsoil.
Physical properties

► Top soil - from where crops obtain most of the

nutrients. Also, where organic matter is concentrated.

► Sub soil - storage of nutrients and water, but often less

fertile than top soil.
Physical properties

1.4 Bulk density Properties related to

1.5 Soil porosity degree of aeration and
1.6 Hydraulic water holding capacity
conductivity
1.7 Soil organic matter content – composed
of dead plant residues and wastes
► for most mineral soils 5%
► for most Philippine soils 2-4%
Physical properties

Importance:
► prevents loss of nutrients by forming
complexes with nutrient elements
► facilties absorption and percolation of water
into and through the soil
► increases water holding capacity
► source of nutrients
► improves penetration of roots
► influences soil structure formation
► influences soil chemical properties may
contain N, P, S, B, Zn
► determines the biotic composition
Physical properties

Humus – amorphous, collidad substance which is resistant

to further decomposition
► improves soil structure
► increases CEC and water holding capacity of soil
► gives dark color to soil
Chemical Properties

2.Chemical Properties
2.1 Soil pH or soil-reaction
► degree of acidity or alkalinity
► influences nutrient availability
► negative logarithm of H+ activity
► 7.0 – neutral pH (H+ = OH-)
► decrease in soil pH acidity
► increase in soil pH alkalinity
Chemical Properties

pH Effects
► pH below 5.0 – Al, Fe & Mn become toxic
Ca & Mo deficiency
► pH below 5.5 – Mo, Za, K & S deficiency
► pH 6-7 (neutral) – most nutrients are in
available form
► pH above 7.5 – Al toxicity, salinity, Zn & Fe
toxicity
► pH above 8.0 – formation of Ca phosphates
► pH above 8.5 – salinity, Zn & Fe deficiency
Chemical Properties

2.2. Cation Exchange Capacity

- ability of soil to absorb and release
cations through the soil solution
► how? - soil particles can be colloidal
(e.g., clay) and can contain excess (net)
negative charges
► how measured? - sum of exchangeable
cations in a given wt. of soil expresses
in me/100 g. soil
Chemical Properties

Nutrient Holding Capacity – CEC

Particular me/100g
Humus 600
Good clay (Montmorillonite) 80 to 150
Not good clay (Kaolinite) 3 to 15
Sand 0
Good soil 20 above
Bad soil 5 and below

By M. Maeda and Y. Mastuo (Basic Knowledge of Soil)

Biological Properties

3. Biological Properties
3.1 Macroscopic organisms
3.2 Microscopic organisms
a. Fungi
b. Actinomycetes and protozoa = decomposers (aerobic)
c. Bacteria (billion/g topsoil)
- Thiobacillus oxidizes S
sulfate form
- Auxotrophic bacteria – oxidizes Mn & Fe
to less available form
- Nitrifying bacteria
- N fixing bacteria
d. Blue-green algae – Nitrogen fixation
Biological Properties

3.3 Root – microoganism association found in the nuts of

legumes – Nitrogen fixation
a, bacteria – rhizobia in nodules
b. fungi mycorrhizal fungi
- converts phosphorous to biological forms
3.4 Organic matter and humus
OM 5% N,
Only 2% available to plant

Philippine soils
2.4% OM
high fertility >3.5%
medium 2-3.5%
low <2%
 Soil Organisms
Macro - small mammals, insects
(springtails, ants, beetles, grubs), millipedes,
Fauna
centipedes, sowbugs, mites, slugs, snails,
earthworms, spiders

Micro - nematodes, protozoa

Soil organisms

Roots of higher plants

Flora
Algae – blue, blue green, diatoms
Fungi – mushroom, yeast, molds
Bacteria – aerobic/anaerobic
- autotrophic/heterotrophic

Actinomycetes
Benefits from Earthworms

► Burrowing – channels for drainage and

aeration, entry of other animals, entry of
water, nutrients, roots
► Mix the soil, “plows” the soil
► Incorporates crop residues
► Contribute to OM
► Humus enrichment
► Improves soil structure
► Control pests (e.g., leaf miner pupa, scub
pathogen)
► Nutrient recycling
Topography

- whether the land is flat or sloping

- a major parameter in delineating
lowlands and uplands
► in the Philippines, the slope of the
land is used as the major determinant.
i.e., uplands - > 18% slope
- in crop production, topography is
critical in:
✔ irrigation and drainage
✔ soil conservation
Topography

► in flat lands, the problem can be in drainage.

► in sloping lands, the problem can be in how to
bring water up for irrigation.
► poor drainage can result into soil fertility
problems.
► in sloping lands, soil erosion can be a major
problem especially if crop production practices do
not consider soil and water conservation
strategies.
► to a great extent, CEC is an indicator of soil
fertility because most nutrients are taken up by
plants in cation form.
► the soil can also exchange anions
► roots of plant also have their own CEC – the
exchange thereforedepends on the interaction of
soil and root CEC.
BIOTIC FACTORS

- all living elements in the environment

that can affect crop production
- includes: beneficial organisms pests
1. Beneficial organisms
► provide beneficial effects on crop
production
includes:
► Pollinators
► important role in the preservation of species and
in biodiversity conservation
Biotic factors

► Decomposers
►an important part in the food chain which is
related to energy flow in a crop production
system.
►a trophic level, usually consisting soil
microorganisms (soil biotic factors)
►specifically important in the maintenance of
soil organic matter.
► Natural pest enemies
►provide balance in a crop production system
particularly in the control of pests
►as bio-control agents against pests
Biotic factors

1.1 Pests
► a collective term that includes insect pests, diseases,
weeds, invertebrates and vertibrates
► has always been a major limiting factor in crop
production!
► Damage can go as high as 100%!
Genetic Factors

GENETIC FACTORS
Include all factors internal to the plant.
1. Genotype – the genetic design of a plant which
dictates the ceiling of how much a variety/cultivar
can yield.
Genome – sets the ultimate limit for plant variation
Genetic factors

2. Selection indices of major Philippine

crops:
✔ The choice of variety is one of the most
critical decisions in crop production.
✔ Technologies required in growing a
certain crops are dependent on the
characteristics of a particular variety
especially:
✔ growth characteristics
✔ quality of the product
✔ market acceptability
Genetic factors

EXAMPLES OF SELECTION INDICES:

1. corn: ✔ early maturing (90-95 days)
to medium maturing (102-105 days)
✔ yield – 5-7 tons/ha
✔ yellow or white flint
✔ moderate or highly resistant/
tolerant to: rust, corn borer
earworm, downy mildew, etc.
✔ drought tolerant
Genetic factors

2. rice: ✔ growth duration:

early - 100-110 days
medium - 110-120 days
late - >120 days
✔ yield: 5000-6000 kg/ha
✔ plant height: 80-105 cm.
✔ amylose content: intermediate to high
✔ gelatimization temperature: low
intermediate
high
✔ grain size and appearance: medium to
long slender
Genetic factors

3. mungbean: maturity: 60 days

✔ yield: 1.2-1.5 tons/ha
✔ plant height: 30-75 cm.
✔ tolerant to cercospora leaf spot, downy mildew, water
logging
✔ shiny, yellow-green seeds
Genetic factors

4. coconut: ✔ 1200-1500 nuts/harvest: 8x/yr

or every 45 days
✔ tree or plant should have a rounded
crown
✔ at least 60-80 nuts/tree/yr.
✔ at least 30-36 opened leaves
✔ closer leaf scar
✔ presence of inflorescence in every
leaf
✔ medium-sized, round shaped nuts
✔ free form pest and diseases
Genetic factors

5. mango: ✔ dwarf
✔ fruit large with thin/small seeds
✔ regular bearer
✔ resistant to major pests and
diseases
6. banana: ✔ early maturity
✔ high yielding
✔ drought tolerant
✔ resistant to pest and disease
✔ good fruit quality
Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs)
► the latest development in
biotechnology in relation to crop
improvement.
► in countries like the USA, Argentina,
Canada and China, transgenic crops
have been commercialized.
► global area of transgenic crops in 1999
is about 39.9 million hectares
► transgenic crops: corn, tomato,
soybean, cotton, potato
GMO’s

The issue: (Kuyek D, 2000)

► Genetic engineering is vastly different
from other methods used by breeders.
While all other processes for breeding
rely on natural functions of organisms,
GE moves genes from one organism to
another in ways that could never be
possible in nature. The science is not
precise and the interactions between
the GMO and the surrounding
environment are unpredictable
GMO’s

Concerns:
► possible transfer of trans gene to other
microorganisms like soil
microorganisms
► possible effects of products on non
target organisms
► possible faster pest adaptation
► possible production of allergenic
and/or toxic substances
► possible effects of transgenic products
themselves
Human factors

► often overlooked but probably the most critical of

all factors
► from a system perspective, it is not only a factor,
rather it is the core of the system itself (it is the
reason for crop production, for farming)

1. Farmer’s preference re: crop type, variety

► ideally based on farmer’s objectives and
aspirations
► however, in the Philippines, this is often dictated
by external factors, i.e., ✔market ✔government
policies
Human factors

2. Farmer’s capability
► depends on: ✔resources ✔knowledge
► most Filipino farmers are resource-poor
► our culture is very rich in indigenous
knowledge particularly about farming
3. Management
► a result of 1 and 2
► goes along with eco-social-political
realities
THANK
YOU!