STONES

Stones
Stones form one of the most important building
materials in civil engineering.
Stones are derived from rocks, which form the earth's
crust and have no definite shape or chemical
combination but are mixtures of two or more minerals.
The mineral is a substance which is formed by the
natural inorganic process and possesses a definite
chemical combination and molecular structure. They
are strong, durable and descent in appearance.
 Uses of Stones
The main uses of stone as a building material are:
As a principal material for foundation of civil engineering
works, and for the construction of walls, arches, abutments
and dams.
In stone masonry in places where it is naturally available.
As coarse aggregate in cement concrete (crushed form of
rock). ...
Stones are also adopted for paving of roads, footpaths, etc.
Stones may be used as ballast for railway sleepers
Stones are also as blocks in the construction of bridges,
piers, abutments, retaining walls, dams, etc.
 Classification of Stone
They may be classified in the following three
ways. Stones are classified as per the classification of
their parent rocks.
Geological classification
Physical classification
Chemical or Scientific classification.
 Classification of Stone
Geological classification
 IgneousRocks
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks

Physical classification
 Stratifiedrocks
 Unstratified rocks
 Foliated rocks

Scientific or Chemical classification

 SiliceousRocks
 Argillaceous Rocks
 Calcareous Rocks
 Igneous Rocks
Igneous  rocks  are  rocks  formed  from  a  molten  material 
called  magma.
Magma forms deep underground when rock that was once
solid melts.
As magma moves upward, that solidifies underground
usually cools slowly, allowing large crystals to form.
Magma that reaches Earth’s surface is called lava.
Lava loses heat to the atmosphere or ocean very quickly
and therefore solidifies very rapidly, forming very small
crystals or glass.
When lava erupts at the surface again and again, it can
form mountains called volcanoes.
 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks commonly contain the minerals feldspar,
quartz, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine.
Igneous rocks are named according to which minerals they
contain.
Rocks rich in feldspar and quartz are called felsic
(Granite and Rhyolite )
Rocks rich in pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine, which
all contain magnesium and iron, are called mafic (gabbro
and basalt)
Common and important igneous rocks are granite,
rhyolite, gabbro, and basalt. Basalt is the most common
volcanic rock.
 Sedimentary rocks
These are formed by the deposition of sediments due
to the action of air and water.
Due to the action of high-speed wind and heavy rain,
igneous rocks are disintegrated and deposited in layers,
one the earth crust and formed sedimentary rocks.
Limestone, sandstone, and slate are the examples of
sedimentary rocks.
 Metamorphic rocks
These rocks are either the sedimentary rocks or the
igneous rocks whose physical and chemical properties
are changed due to the action of high temperature and
pressure.
Dolomite, marble, gneiss are the examples of
metamorphic rocks.
 Physical classification
This classification is based on general structure of
rocks.
According to this classification, the rocks are of the
following three types:
Stratified rocks
Unstratified rocks and
Foliated rocks.
 Stratified rocks
These rocks possess planes of stratification or cleavage
and such rocks can easily be split up along these
planes.
The sedimentary rocks are distinctly stratified rocks.
 Unstratified rocks
The structure may be crystalline granular or compact
granular.
The igneous rocks of volcanic agency and sedimentary
rocks affected by movements of the earth are of this
type of rocks
 Foliated rocks
These rocks have a tendency to be split up in a definite
direction only.
The foliated structure is very common in case of
metamorphic rocks.
 Chemical classification
This classification is known as the scientific or
engineering classification and according to this
classification, the rocks are of the following three
types:
(i) Siliceous rocks;
(ii) Argillaceous rocks; and
(iii) Calcareous rocks.
 Siliceous rocks
In these rocks, the silica predominates. The rocks are
hard and durable. They are not easily affected by the
weathering agencies.
The silica however in combination with weaker
minerals may disintegrate easily.
It is therefore necessary that these rocks should contain
maximum amount of free silica for making them hard
and durable.
The granites, quartzites, etc. are examples of siliceous
rocks.
 Argillaceous rocks
In these rocks, the argil or clay predominates.
Such rocks may be dense and compact or they may be
soft. These stones are hard and durable but brittle.
The slates, laterites, etc. are examples of the
Argillaceous rocks.
 Calcareous rocks
In these rocks, the calcium carbonate predominates.
The durability of these rocks will depend upon the
constituents present in the surrounding atmosphere.
The limestone, marbles, etc. are examples of
calcareous rocks
 Commonly Used Building Stones
Following are the commonly used building stones
1. Granite
2. Basalt and trap
3. Limestone
4. Chalk
5. Sandstone
6. Marble
7. Slate
8. Quartzite
9. Laterite
10. Gneiss
 Granite
Granite is an igneous rock which is formed by the
solidification of magma at a considerable depth from
the earth's surface.
It is hard and durable. It is available indifferent
colours.
The color of granite varies according to the amount of
feldspar in it. It can be polished nicely.
The compressive strength of granite is about 75 to 130
MPa.
Its specific gravity lies between 2.63 to 2.75.
Its density is about 26 to 27 KN/m3.
 Uses
Granite is used for large engineering projects such as
the construction of bridge abutments, dams, offshore
structures, etc.
It is also used for constructing steps, walls, flooring,
etc.
 Basalt and trap
Basalt and trap are also igneous rocks.
These stones are also called as green stones or white
stones or blue basalt.
They are hard and tough.
It is difficult to work with this kind of rocks.
The specific gravity of basalt and trap varies from 2.6
to 3.0.
They are having a high compressive strength of 150 to
190 MPa.
 Uses
Basalt and trap used as railway ballast, aggregate in
concrete, pavement material, etc.
Yellow and red colored basalt and trap are used to
construct decorative features in structures
 Limestone
Limestone belongs to sedimentary rocks which are
formed by the deposition of particles of weathering.
It contains calcium carbonate in huge proportion.
It is soft and easily workable.
The compressive strength of limestone is about 55
MPa and specific gravity lies between 2.0 to 2.75.
 Uses
Limestone is used to manufacture lime and cement.
It is also used for flooring, roofing, etc.

Chalk
Chalk is a sedimentary rock and it contains pure lime
in it.
It is very soft and easily can be converted into
powdered form.
It is generally white in color and contains a porous
structure.
Uses
Powdered chalk is used for manufacturing lime putty
and also used as a pigment in Portland cement.
 Sandstone
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock and consists of
different minerals like quartz, feldspar, silica, etc. in it.
The hardness of sandstone depends upon the
proportion of minerals in it.
However, it is easily workable and also available in
different colours.
The specific gravity of sandstone lies between 2.65
and 2.95.
Its compressive strength is about 65 MPa and with a
density of 20 to 22 KN/m3.
 Uses
It is used as material for roofing, paving, columns,
facing works and ornamental carvings, etc.
 Marble
Marble belongs to the metamorphic category of rocks
and it is formed when limestone is subjected to
excessive heat and pressure. This process of forming is
called metamorphism.
Marble is hard and compact in nature.
It occurs in different colours and also it can take a
good polish.
Its compressive strength is about 70 Mpa.
The specific gravity of marble is about 2.65.
 Uses
Marble is used for flooring, facing works, steps, etc.
It can be carved into required shape easily hence, it is
used for decorative and ornamental works of
structures.
 Slate
Slate is a metamorphic rock which is formed by the
metamorphic action of shale under low pressure and
heat conditions.
It is hard and brittle.
It consists of foliated texture and generally black in
color.
It can be split into thin slabs along its natural foliated
planes.
Its crushing strength ranges from 75 to 210 Mpa with a
specific gravity of 2.89.
 Uses
Slate is used for floorings, roofing works, partitions,
damp proof courses, etc.
 Quartzite
Quartzite also belongs metamorphic category which is
formed by the metamorphism of sandstone under high
pressure and temperature.
It is of crystalline structure with a granular texture.
It is hard and brittle. It is not easily workable.
Its compressive strength is about 115 MPa.
Uses
Quartzite is used as road aggregate, concrete
aggregate, etc. it is also used to construct retaining
walls, rubble masonry, stone pitching, etc.
 Laterite
Laterite also belongs to the metamorphic category.
It is porous and spongy in its structure.
It is soft and workable hence quarrying of laterite is
easy.
It has low crushing strength which is about 1.8 to 3.0
MPa.
When it is decomposed it turns into moorum which is
widely used for road construction.
Uses
Laterite is used for rough stone masonry works,
pavement construction works, etc.
 Gneiss
Gneiss is another metamorphic rock formed by the
metamorphosis of granite.
It consists of foliated structure hence it can be split
into thin slabs along its bedding planes.
It is strong and durable. Its crushing strength varies
from 206 MPa to 370MPa with a specific gravity of
2.69.
Uses
Crushed gneiss used for pavement construction, rough
stone masonry works, stone pitching, etc.
Properties of Building
Stones
Properties of Building Stones
The following are the engineering and physical properties of the stones that should be
looked into before selecting them for engineering works:
Structure
Density
Appearance
Texture
Strength
Hardness
Percentage wear
Porosity and Absorption
Weathering
Toughness
Resistance to Fire
Ease in Dressing
Seasoning
 Structure
The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or
unstratified. Structured stones should be easily dressed
and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are
hard and difficult to dress. They are preferred for the
foundation works
 Density
Denser stones are stronger.
Light weight stones are weak. Therefore stones having
specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable
for buildings
 Appearance
A stone having uniform and attractive color is durable,
if grains are compact. Granite and Marble get very
well appearance, when polished. Therefore they are
used for face works in buildings.
 Texture
Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution
look attractive and therefore they are used for carving.
Such stones are typically strong and durable.
 Strength
Strength is an essential property to be looked into before
choosing stone as building block.
According to Indian standard code recommends, minimum
crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any particular building
block.
Due to non-uniformity of the material, generally a factor of
safety of 10 is used to discover the permissible stress in a stone.
Therefore even laterite can be used safely for a single storey
building, because in such type of structures expected load can
hardly give a stress of 0.15 N/mm2.
Still in stone masonry buildings care should be taken to ensure
the stresses when the beams are placed on laterite wall.
Strength
 Hardness
It is an essential property to be considered when stone
is used for pavement and flooring. Coefficient of
hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard
specimen in Dory's testing machine. For road works
coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For
building works stones having coefficient of hardness
less than 14 should not be used.
 Percentage wear
It is measured by attrition test. It is an essential
property to be considered in choosing aggregate for
road works and railway ballast. A good stone will not
show wear of more than 2%.
 Porosity and Absorption
All the stones have pores and therefore absorb water.
The reaction of water having material of stone causes
disintegration. Absorption test is referring as
percentage of water absorbed by the stone when it is
immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good stone it
ought to be as small as possible and in no case more
than five.
 Weathering
Wind and Rain cause loss of good appearance of
stones. Therefore stones with good weather resistance
should be used for face works.
 Toughness
The resistance to impact is known toughness. It is
resolute by impact test. Stones having toughness index
more than 19 are preferred for road works. The
toughness index 13 to 19 is considered as medium
tough and stones having toughness index less than 13
are poor stones.
 Resistance to Fire
Sand stones resist fire better.
Argillaceous materials, although poor in strength, are
fine in resisting fire.
 Ease in Dressing
Cost of dressing contributes to rate of stone masonry
to a great extent. Dressing is simple in stones having
lesser strength. Therefore an engineer should look into
enough strength rather than high strength whereas
selecting stones for building works.
 Seasoning
The stones obtained from quarry hold moisture in the
pores. Strength of the stone improves if this moisture
is removed before by using the stone. The procedure of
removing moisture from pores is known as seasoning.
The best way of seasoning is to permit it to the action
of nature for 6 to12 months. It is very much needed in
the case of laterite stones.
Relation of Stones to their
Structural Requirement
 Strength
Ordinarily, the strength of a stone is not of primary
importance, as very often the loads to which it is
subjected in a structure are much below its permissible
crushing strength
 Durability
Stones should possess a natural durability to withstand
the destructive effects of various agents continuously
operating on them.
In fact, the life of a structure depends upon the
durability of the materials with which it is built.
The durability of a stone depends upon the relation
between its chemical composition and that of the
atmospheric surroundings.
The texture of the stone also influences its durability.
 Durability
Crystalline homogeneous and close-grained varieties
of stones with a dense structure should be selected for
good works.
The surface of a freshly broken stone should be
uniform in texture, colour and hardness.
Porous stones or those containing patches of soft or
objectionable materials are liable to disintegrate
quickly.
 Cost
An important consideration in the selection of building
stone is its cost.
Other things being equal, the cost of a stone depends
upon the ease with which it can be quarried out, the
proximity of the quarry to the place of use, and the
transportation facilities available.
The subsequent cost of dressing a stone, before it is
placed directly in the structure, should also be low.
 Appearance
In the case of the stone used for face work, where
appearance is a primary factor, its colour and ability to
receive polish is an important factor.
 Hardness
The stone used in floors, pavements and aprons of
bridges, should be able to resist the abrasive forces
caused due to wear and friction.
Hardness of stones can be tested by the mohr's scale of
hardness in the laboratory and in the field by scraping
the surface with a sharp knife.
A hard stone will not show any scratches.
 Toughness
Building stones should also be tough enough to
withstand stresses developed due to vibrations of
machinery and moving loads over them.
The stones used in the construction of roads should be
hard as well as tough.
Specific Gravity and Weight
The stones used for the construction of dams, weirs,
barrages, docks and harbours should be of a heavier
variety.
In case of dams and roof coverings, lighter varieties of
stones are preferred.
The specific gravity of good building stones should be
between24 and 2.8.
 Porosity and Absorption
A good stone should not be porous, rain water, enter the pores which is
generally acidic, Chemical Composition of Stone Limestone and weak
sandstone are relatively less durable than a good sandstone, granite or
gneiss.
 Air and water, containing carbon dioxide, seriously affect limestone .
Iron pyrites also tend to disintegrate stones, excess iron oxide or
carbonate in stones develops rust in the presence of moisture;
presence of clay affects the efficiency of the cementing materials;
soda and potash also have a disintegrating effect, all varieties of mica
are soft and are readily decomposed by exposure to atmosphere.
Stones with silicates as the cementing material will weather better than
those with calcareous or ferruginous binding material
 Texture
The texture of a stone indicates the arrangement of its
constituent minerals.
Good building stone should be homogeneous in structure.
Stones with homogeneous and crystalline texture are hard and
compact and superior to non-crystalline and open-texture
varieties.
Generally, igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, trap
and gneiss are hard and compact.
Sandstone, limestone and some of the metamorphic rocks are
porous.
Amorphous rocks like glass, flint, etc. have a fused texture and
are hard and compact.
Dressing of Stones
 Dressing of Stones
The stones, after being quarried, are to be cut into
suitable sizes and with suitable surfaces. This process
is known as the dressing of stones and it is carried out
for the following purposes:
(i) To get the desired appearance from stone work,
(ii) To make the transport from quarry easy and
economical,
(iii) To suit to the requirements of stone masonry,
(iv) To take advantage of local men near quarry who
are trained for such type of work, etc.
 Advantages of quarry dressing over
site dressing
At quarry site, it is possible to get cheap labour for the
process of dressing of stones.
It is possible to sort out stones for different works, if quarry
dressing is practised.
The irregular and rough portions of the stones are removed
which decrease the weight of stones and it also facilitates
easy transportation of the stones.
The natural bed surface of stones can be made prominent
during the quarry dressing.
The stones when quarried freshly contain quarry sap and
hence they are comparatively soft and can be easily dressed.
 Varieties of Finishes 
Axed Finish
The surfaces of hard stones such as granite are
dressed by means of an axe. Such a finish is
termed as an axed finish.
 Boasted or Droved Finish
In this type of finish, the boaster is used to make non-
continuous parallel marks on the stone surface as
shown in fig.
These marks may be horizontal, inclined or vertical.
A boaster is a chisel having an edge of width Boasted
or droved finish about 60 mm.
 Chisel-Draughted Margins
In order to obtain uniform joints in stone work, the
margins are placed which may be either squared or
pitched or chamfered
 Circular Finish
In this type of finish, the surface of stone is made
round or circular as in case of a column.
Dragged or Combed Finish
In this type of finish, a drag or a comb, which is a
piece of steel with a number of teeth, is rubbed on the
surface in all directions and surface, as shown in fig, is
obtained.
This finish is suitable for soft stones only.
 Furrowed Finish
In this type of finish, a margin of about 20 mm width,
is sunk on all the edges of stone and the central portion
is made to project about 15 mm.
A number of vertical or horizontal grooves about 10
mm wide are formed in this projected portion as
shown in fig.
This finish is generally adopted to make an external
angle of a wall or building.
 Moulded Finish
The surface of stone can be moulded in any desired
shape so as to improve the appearance of the work.
The mouldings can be made either by hand or
machine.
 Hammer-Dressed Finish
In this type of finish, the stones are made roughly
square or rectangular by means of a Waller’s hammer
as shown in fig.
 The hammer-dressed stones have no sharp or irregular
corners and have comparatively even surface so as to
fit well in masonry.
 Plain Finish
In this type of finish, the surface of the stone is made
approximately smooth with a saw or with a chisel.
 Polished Finished
The surface of the stones such as marbles, granites,
etc. can be polished either with hand or with machine.
 Punched Finish
On the stone surface, the depressions are made by
using a punch.
The surface of the stone takes the form of a series of
hollows and ridges
 Reticulated Finish
This type of finish presents a net-like appearance as
shown in fig.
A margin, about 20 mm wide, is marked on the edges
of stone and irregular sinking are made on the enclosed
space.
A margin, about 10 mm wide, is provided around the
irregularly shaped sinking, having a depth of about 5
mm.
A pointed tool is used to put the marks on the sunk
surface so as to present a pock-marked appearance.
 Rubbed Finish
This type of finish is obtained by rubbing a piece of
stone with the surface or by rubbing the surface with
the help of a suitable machine.
The water and sand are freely used to accelerate the
process of rubbing.
 Scabbling Finish
In this type of finish, the irregular projections are
removed with a scabbling hammer and in this way, the
stones are roughly dressed.
 Tooled Finish
The stone surface is finished by means of a chisel
and parallel continuous marks, either horizontal or
inclined or vertical, are left on the surface.
Self-Faced or Rock-Faced or Quarry-Faced Finish
Some stones, as obtained from the quarry, possess
smooth surface and they can be directly placed on the
work.
Such a stone surface is termed as the self-faced or
rock-faced or quarry-faced finish.
 Sunk Finish
This finish is obtained by sinking the surface below
the original level in the form of wide grooves,
chamfers, inclined surfaces, etc.
 Vermiculated Finish
This finish is just similar to reticulated type except;
that the sinking are more curved.
This finish presents a worm-eaten appearance.
Natural Bed of Stones
Natural Bed of Stones
The building stones are obtained from rocks.
These rocks have a distinct plane of division along
which stones can easily be split.
This plane is known as the natural bed of stone and it
thus indicates the plane or bed on which the
sedimentary stone was originally deposited.
The natural bed of stone need not necessarily be
horizontal.
 Natural Bed of Stones
For sedimentary rocks, it is easy to observe and locate
the natural bed as it lies along the planes of
stratification.
For igneous rocks, the natural bed is of little
significance or importance and it is also difficult to
determine.
 Importance
In stone masonry, the general rule to be observed is that
the direction of natural bed of all sedimentary stones
should be perpendicular or nearly so to the direction of
pressure.
Such an arrangement gives maximum strength to the
stonework.
The natural beds of stones can be detected by pouring
water and examining the directions of layers.
The magnifying glass may also be used for this purpose.
An experienced worker can easily locate the direction of
natural bed of stones from the resistance offered to the
chisel.
The stones break easily along these natural beds.
 Situations
With respect to natural bed, the stones are placed
in different situations as follows:
(i) Arches:
In stone arches, the stones are placed with their natural
beds radial as shown in fig.
With such an arrangement, the thrust of arch acts
normal to the direction of natural beds.
 Situations
(ii) Cornices, String Courses, etc.:
The stones are partially unsupported in case of
cornices, string courses, etc. Hence they should be
placed with direction of natural beds as vertical. This
principle will not hold good for corner stones. It would
be desirable, in such cases, to adopt stones without
natural beds.
(iii) Walls:
The stones should be placed in walls with the direction
of their natural beds horizontal as shown in fig.
Tests on
stones
 Tests on Building Stones
Following are different tests on building stones:
1. Acid test
2. Attrition test
3. Crushing test
4. Crystalline test
5. Freezing and thawing test
6. Hardness Test
7. Impact test
8. Water absorption test
9. Microscopic Test
10. Smith's Test
Acid Test on Building Stone
This test is carried out to understand the presence of
calcium carbonate in building stone.
A sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is
taken.
It is placed in a solution of hydrochloric acid having
strength of one percent and is kept there for seven days.
Solution is appearing at intervals.
A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and
keeps its surface free from powder at the end of this
period.
Acid Test on Building Stone
If the edges are broken and powder is formed on the
surface, it indicates the presence of calcium carbonate
and such a stone will have poor weathering quality.
This test is usually carried out on sandstone
Acid Test on Building
Stone
 Attrition Test on Building
Stone
This test is done to find out the rate of wear of stones, which
are used in road construction.
The results of the test indicates the resisting power of stones
against the grinding action under traffic.
The following procedure is adopted:
1. Samples of stones is broken into pieces about 60mm size.
2. Such pieces, weighing 5 kg are put in both the cylinders
of Deval's attrition test machine. Diameter and length of
cylinder are respectively 20 cm and 34 cm.
3. Cylinders are closed. Their axes make an angle of 30
degree with the horizontal.
 Attrition Test on Building
Stone
4. Cylinders are rotated about the horizontal axis for 5
hours at the rate of 30 rpm.
5. After this period, the contents are taken out from the
cylinders and they are passed through a sieve of 15mm
mesh.
6. Quality of material which is retained on the sieve is
weighed.
7. Percentage wear worked out as follows:
Percentage wear = (Loss in Weight/Initial Weight) x
100
Attrition Test on Building
Stone
 Crushing Test on Building
Stone
Samples of stone is cut into cubes of size 40 x 40 x 40 mm
sizes of cubes are finely dressed and finished.
Maximum number of specimen to be tested is three.
Such specimen should be placed in water for about 72 hours
prior to test and therefore tested in saturated condition.
Load bearing surface is then covered with plaster of paris of
about 5 mm thick plywood.
Load is applied axially on the cube in a crushing test
machine. Rate of loading is 140 kg/sq.cm per minute.
Crushing strength of the stone per unit area is the maximum
load at which the sample crushes or fails divided by the area
of the bearing face of the specimen.
 Crystalline Test on Building
Stone
At least four cubes of stone with side as 40mm are
taken.
They are dried for 72 hrs and weighed.
They are then immersed in 14% solution of Na2s04 for
2 hours.
They are dried at 100 degree Centigrade and weighed.
Difference in weight is noted.
This procedure of drying, weighing, immersion and
reweighing is repeated at least 5times.
 Crystalline Test on Building Stone
Each time, change in weight is noted and it is
expressed as a percentage of original weight.
Crystallization of CaSO4 in pores of stone causes
decay of stone due to weathering But as CaSO4 has
low solubility in water, it is not adopted in this test.
 Freezing and thawing test
Stone specimen is kept immersed in water for 24
hours.
It is then placed in a freezing machine at -12 degC for
24 hours.
Then it is thawed or warmed at atmospheric
temperature.
This should be done in shade to prevent any effect due
to wind, sun rays, rain etc. this procedure is repeated
several times and the behaviour of stone is carefully
observed.
 Hardness Test on Building
Stone
For determining the hardness of a stone, the test is
carried out as follows:
A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is
taken out from the sample of stone.
It is weighed.
The sample is placed in Dorry’s testing machine and it
is subjected to a pressure of 1250 gm.
Annular steel disc machine is then rotated at a speed of
28 rpm.
 Hardness Test on Building Stone
During the rotation of the disc, coarse sand of standard
specification is sprinkled on the top of disc.
After 1000 revolutions, specimen is taken out and
weighed.
The coefficient of hardness is found out from the
following equation:
Coefficient of hardness = 20 – (Loss of weight in
gm/3)
 Impact Test
For determining the toughness of stone, it is subjected to
impact test in a Page Impact Test Machine as followed:
A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken
out from the sample of stones.
It is then placed on cast iron anvil of machine.
A steel hammer of weight 2 kg is allowed to fall axially in
a vertical direction over the specimen.
Height of first blow is 1 cm, that of second blow is 2 cm,
that of third blow is 3 cm and so on.
Blow at which specimen breaks is noted. If it is nth blow,
‘n’ represents the toughness index of stone.
Impact Test
 Microscopic Test
The sample of the test is subjected to microscopic
examination. The sections of stones are taken and
placed under the microscope to study the various
properties such as
Average grain size
Existence of pores, fissures, veins and shakes
Mineral constituents
Nature of cementing material
Presence of any harmful substance
Texture of stones etc.
 Smith’s Test
This test is performed to find out the presence of
soluble matter in a sample of stone.
Few chips or pieces of stone are taken and they are
placed in a glass tube. The tube is then filled with clear
water.
After about an hour, the tube is vigorously stirred or
shaken.
Presence of earthy matter will convert the clear water
into dirty water.
If water remains clear, stone will be durable and free
from any soluble matter.
 Water Absorption Test
The test is carried out as follows:
From the sample of stone, a cube weighing about 50gm is
prepared. Its actual weight is recorded as W1 gm.
Cube is then immersed in distilled water for a period of 24 hrs.
Cube is taken out of water and surface water is wiped off with a
damp cloth.
It is weighed again. Let the weight be W2 gm.
Cube is suspended freely in water and its weight is recorded. Let
this be W3 gm.
Water is boiled and cube is kept in boiling water for 5 hours.
Cube is removed and surface water is wiped off with a damp cloth.
Its weight is recorded. Let it be W4 gm.
 Water Absorption Test
From the above observations, values of the following properties of
stones are obtained.
Percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours =(W2 – W1) x 100
/ W1
Percentage absorption by volume after 24 hours = (W2 – W1) x
100 / (W2 – W3)
Volume of displaced water = W2 – W3
Percentage porosity by volume = (W4 – W1) x 100 / (W2 – W3)
Density =W1 / (W2 – W3) kg/m3
Specific Gravity = W1 / (W2 – W3)
Saturation Coefficient = (Water Absorption/Total Porosity) = (W2
– W1) / (W4 – W1)