IMMUNITY

IMMUNITY
• Immunity is defined as the capacity of the body to resist
pathogenic agents.
• It is the ability of body to resist the entry of different types
of foreign bodies like bacteria, virus, toxic substances, etc.
Immunity is of two types:
I. Innate immunity.
II. Acquired immunity.
 Innate and adaptive Immunity
• All organisms possess some disease resistance ability that they
have inherited from their parents or have gained naturally. This
is known as innate immunity.
• When organisms develop immunity against certain diseases by
developing antibodies within themselves, it is referred to as
adaptive or acquired immunity.

INNATE IMMUNITY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

Rapid responses to a Slower responses to
broad range of microbes specific microbes

External defenses Internal defenses

Skin Phagocytic cells Humoral response

Mucous membranes Antimicrobial proteins (antibodies)
Secretions Inflammatory response
Invading
Natural killer cells Cell-mediated response
microbes
(cytotoxic
(pathogens)
lymphocytes)
Innate immunity vs Adaptive Immunity

Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity

(first line of defense) (second line of defense)

• No time lag • A lag period

• Not antigen specific • Antigen specific

No memory • Development
of memory
 Active and Passive Immunity
• When an organism’s immune system is actively involved in the
formation of antibodies and production of immune-
competent cells, it is called active immunity
• In case of passive immunity, antibodies and immune-
competent cells are transferred from one organism to another
to increase resistance against a pathogen.
• Naturally acquired passive immunity
• A fetus naturally acquires passive immunity from its mother
during pregnancy. Maternal passive immunity is antibody
mediated immunity. The mother’s antibodies (MatAb) are
passed through the placenta to the fetus by receptor on
placental cells. This occurs around the third month
of gestation.
• Artificially acquired passive immunity
• Artificially acquired passive immunity is a
short-term immunization induced by the
transfer of antibodies, which can be
administered in several forms; as human
or animal blood plasma, as pooled human
immunoglobulin for intravenous (IVIG) and
in the form of monoclonal antibodies(MAb).
 Functions of Innate Immunity
• The function of innate Immunity is very minimal. It creates a barrier against the
antigens. It restricts the harmful elements.
• However, it does not have any immunological memory, which means it cannot
remember antigens. Therefore, it initiates the same level of response every time it
encounters the same antigen and viruses.
• Components of Innate immunity:
• Component # 1. Physical and Chemical or Anatomical
• Skin
• Gastro-intestinal tract
• Urinogenital tract
• Mammary gland
• Respiratory tract

• Component # 2. Phagocytic Barriers:

• Neutrophils
• Macrophages
• Endocytosis, phagocytosis and killing of microbes
• Natural killer cells (NK cells)
 Component # 3. Blood Proteins

System of about 25- 30 proteins

• Present normally among the plasma proteins in
blood as well as among the proteins that leak out of
the capillaries into the tissue spaces
 Component # 4. Cytokines
• Cytokines are proteins produced in res­ponse to microbes
and other antigens that medi­ate and regulate immune
and inflammatory reac­tions.
 Role of T and B lymphocytes
• T cells (thymus cells) and B cells are the major cellular
components of the adaptive immune response.
• T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity , whereas
B cells are primarily responsible for humoral
immunity (relating to antibodies).
• The function of T cells and B cells is to recognize
specific "non-self" antigens, during a process known
as antigen presentation.
• Once they have identified an invader, the cells generate
specific responses that are tailored maximally to
eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells.
 Role of B cells in Immunity
• B cells respond to pathogens by producing large quantities
of antibodies which then neutralize foreign objects like bacteria
and viruses.
• In response to pathogens some T cells, called T helper cells,
produce cytokines that direct the immune response, while other T
cells, called cytotoxic T cells, produce toxic granules that contain
powerful enzymes which induce the death of pathogen-infected cells.
• Following activation, B cells and T cells leave the antigen in the form
of memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory
cells will "remember" each specific pathogen encountered, and are
able to mount a strong and rapid response if the same pathogen is
detected again; this is known as acquired immunity.
 Humoral and cell
mediated immunity
 Humoral immunity or B-cell immunity

• Two basic but closely allied types of acquired

immunity occur in the body. In one of these
the body develops circulating antibodies,
which are globulin molecules in the blood
plasma that are capable of attacking the
invading agent. This type of immunity is called
humoral immunity or B-cell immunity
(because B lymphocytes produce the
antibodies).
Cell-mediated immunity or T-cell immunity

• The second type of acquired immunity is

achieved through the formation of large
numbers of activated T lymphocytes that are
specifically crafted in the lymph nodes to
destroy the foreign agent. This type of
immunity is called cell-mediated immunity or
T-cell immunity (because the activated
lymphocytes are T lymphocytes).
• The Ig, CD40, CD21, and Fc receptors are the
humoral immunity's accessory receptors. The
accessory receptors of cell-mediated immunity are
CD2, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD28, and integrins.
• Humoral immunity recognizes the unprocessed
antigens. In humoral immunity, plasma B cells
release antibodies.
• Cytokines are released by T-cells. Tumor cells and
transplants are immune to humoral immunity.
Tumor cells and transplants are both affected by
cell-mediated immunity.
 Antigens:
Definition:
• The antigens are the substances
which induce specific immune reactions in the body
Antigens are of two types:
• Auto-antigens or Self antigens
• Foreign antigens or Nonself-antigens
Non Self Antigen:
• Following are the Non Self Antigen:
1. The receptors on the cell membrane of microbial
organisms
2. The material from transplanted organs
3. Allergens
The Non Self Antigen are of two types
4. The antigens without the development of immunity
5. The antigens which react with specific antibodies
Chemical Nature of Antigens:
• The antigens are mostly the conjugated proteins like
lipoprotein, glycoprotein and nucleoprotein
Development of Cell Mediated
Immunity:
• For the development of cell
mediated immunity, T cells come
in contact with the antigens
• Microbial organisms carry the
antigen material
• Antigen material is presented to
the T cells with the help of
presenting cells
 Antigen Presenting Cells:

• There are two main types of presenting

cells
1. Macrophages
2. Dendritic Cells
3. B lymphocytes
Macrophages:
• These are the large phagocytes
• They digest the invading organism to
release the antigen
• These are present along with lymphocytes
 Dendritic Cell

Dendritic Cells:
These are non-phagocytic in nature
These are of three types
• Dendritic Cells of spleen(entrap antigens of blood)
• Follicular Dendritic Cells(in lymph nodes)
• Langerhans Dendritic Cells(in skin)
Role of Antigen Presenting Cells:
• They engulf foreign organism by phagocytosis
• The Antigen from the engulfed organism is digested into small
peptides
• The peptide products are loaded on to human leukocytes antigens
present in the molecules of class II major histocompatibility
complex (MHC)
 MHC and HLA Antigen system

• MHC is a large group of gene family in the short

arm of chromosome 6
• It contain many genes which are involved in
immune system
• It has more than 200 genes including HLA
• HLA antigen system is a small group of genes
present in MHC molecules
• It encodes the cell surface antigen presenting
proteins
• MHC molecules in human being are divided into 2
groups
 Role of Helper T Cells:
helper
 There are two types
Helper T Cells
• Helper-1 T Cells
• Helper-2 T Cells
Helper-1 T Cells:
They are concerned with
cellular immunity.
They secrete:
 Interleukin-2 (Which activates
the other T cells)
 Gamma Interferon (stimulates
the phagocytic activity of Cytotoxic cells)
Helper-2 T Cells:
They are concerned with humoral immunity
 Helper-2 T Cells:
They secrete Interleukin-4 and
Interleukin-5 which are
concerned with
 Activation of B cells
 Proliferation of Plasma cells
 Production of antibodies by
plasma cells
Role of cytotoxic cells:
• The activated cytotoxic T cells circulate through blood,
lymph and lymphatic tissues and destroy the invading
organisms
• The outer membrane of cytotoxic T cells contains some
receptors proteins which bind the antigen or organisms
tightly with cytotoxic T cells
• Then the T cells are enlarged and release cytotoxic
substances like the lysosomal enzymes
• These substances destroy the invading organisms
Role of Suppressor T cells:
• Suppressor T cells are also called regulatory T
cells
• These T cells suppress the activities of the
killer T cells
• Thus the Suppressor T cells play an important
role in preventing the killer T cells from
destroying the body’s own tissues along with
invading organisms
 Development of Humoral Immunity:

Introduction:
• Humoral immunity is developed by the
antibodies
• The antibodies are the gamma globulins
produced by B lymphocytes
• These antibodies fight against the invading
organisms
• It is the major defensive mechanism against
the bacterial infection
 Role of Antigen
Representing Cells
• The Antigen Representing Cells present the
antigen bound to MHC molecules of B cells
• The B cells recognizes the antigen bound to
MHC molecules
• B cell has own surface receptor protein
called B cell receptor which helps to
recognize
• The antigenic products activate the B cells
• The B cells are proliferated and
transformed into two types of cells
1. Plasma cells
2. Memory Cells
 Role of Plasma Cells:

• They produce the antibodies which are globulin in nature,

the antibodies are called Immunoglobulin
• Each plasma cell produces about 200 molecules of
antibodies per second
• The antibodies are released into lymph and then
transported in to the circulation
Role of Memory Cells:
• Memory cells occupy the lymphoid tissues throughout the
body
• The memory cells are in inactive condition until the body is
exposed to the same organism for the second time
• During the second exposure the memory cells are
stimulated by the antigen and produced more quantity of
antibodies at a faster rate
• This phenomenon forms the basic principle of vaccination
against the infection
 Role of Antibodies and action of compliment
system on the invading organism
• Antibodies (Immunoglobulins, Ig) are large Y-shaped glycoproteins
produced by B cells of the immune system to identifying and
neutralizing foreign pathogens (antigens) such as bacteria and viruses.
• The complement has been discovered as a principal effector in the
antibody-dependent killing of microorganisms. This system takes part
in marking of foreign pathogens and presenting them to B cells in a
manner that enhances both antibody production and long-term
memory.
• In the activation of the complement system, there are at least 40
receptors, zymogens, and regulators engaging in the enzymatic
cascade cleavages, which account for ~5% of the globulin fraction of
blood serum.
 Types of antibodies
• Humoral immunity mediated by antibodies is a form of specific immunity
primarily directed toward extracellular antigens.
• In general, antibody molecules contain two identical heavy chains
covalently linked to two identical light chains. The variable region is
responsible for antibody binding and the constant region is in charge of
regulating most effector functions.
• There are five types of antibody molecules serve different functions.
• IgA is critical for mucosal immunity
• IgD is an antigen receptor on B cells
• IgM is involved in primary antibody responses
• IgG is the major immunoglobulin in the circulation and is essential in
secondary antibody responses,
• IgE modulates immunity to parasites
 Mechanism of Actions of Antibodies

• Antibodies protect the body from invading

organisms in
• two ways
• 1. By direct actions
• 2. Through complement system
 1. Direct Actions of Antibodies

• Antibodies directly inactivate the invading organism by any one of

the following methods:
• i. Agglutination: In this, the foreign bodies like RBCs or bacteria
with antigens on their surfaces are held together in a clump by the
antibodies.
• ii. Precipitation: In this, the soluble antigens like tetanus toxin are
converted into insoluble forms and then precipitated.
• iii. Neutralization: During this, the antibodies cover the toxic sites
of antigenic products.
• iv. Lysis: It is done by the most potent antibodies. These antibodies
rupture the cell membrane of the organisms and then destroy
them.
 2. Actions of Antibodies through
Complement System

• The indirect actions of antibodies are stronger than the direct

actions and play more important role in defense mechanism of
the body than the direct actions. Complement system is the one
that enhances or accelerates various activities during the fight
against the invading organisms. It is a system of plasma enzymes,
which are identified by numbers from C1 to C9 Including the
three subunits of C1 (C1q C1r C1s), there are 11 enzymes in total.
Normally, these enzymes are in inactive form and are activated in
three ways:
• a. Classical pathway
• b. Lectin pathway
• c. Alternate pathway
 Classical pathway

• In this the C1binds with the antibodies and triggers a series of

events in which other enzymes are activated in sequence. These
enzymes or the byproducts formed during these events produce
the following activities:
• i. Opsonization: Activation of neutrophils and macrophages to
engulf the bacteria, which are bound with a protein in the plasma
called opsonin.
• ii. Lysis: Destruction of bacteria by rupturing the cell membrane.
• iii. Chemotaxis: Attraction of leukocytes to the site of antigen-
antibody reaction.
• iv. Agglutination: Clumping of foreign bodies like RBCs or bacteria.
• v. Neutralization: Covering the toxic sites of antigenic products.
• vi. Activation of mast cells and basophils, which liberate histamine:
Histamine dilates the blood vessels and increases capillary permeability.
So, plasma proteins from blood enter the tissues and inactivate the
antigenic products.
• b. Lectin pathway
• Lectin pathway occurs when mannose-binding lectin (MBL), which is a
serum protein binds with mannose or fructose group on wall of bacteria,
fungi or virus.
• c. Alternate pathway
• Complementary system is also activated by another way, which is called
alternate pathway. It is due to a protein in circulation called factor I. It
binds with polysaccharides present in the cell membrane of the invading
organisms.
• This binding activates C3 and C5 which ultimately attack the antigenic
products of invading organism.
Difference between Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity
 Allergy and Hypersentivity
• Hypersensitivity----An exaggerated
immune response that may cause
damage to the host. The trigger is often
an innocuous antigen

• Allergy-----A hypersensitive response to

an environmental antigen. Often presents
as “hay fever”, asthma, dermatitis or
anaphylaxis.
  Four types of Hypersensitivity
• Type I: IgE-mediatede.g.most common
allergies
• Type II: IgG-mediatede.g.ABO transfusion
reaction
• Type III: Immune-complex mediated e.g.
serum sickness
• Type IV: T cell-mediated; delayed
typee.g.tuberculin reaction