Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation is the regulation of osmotic

pressure in the internal environment
Osmosis is important to ensure that the
interstitial fluid and the cell sap are isotonic to
each other, thus avoiding either crenation or
haemolysis
The kidneys play an important role in
osmoregulation
The water and salt content in the blood
determines the osmotic pressure in the blood
 The osmotic pressure is high when there is an
excess of salts and less water in the blood
 Conversely, the osmotic pressure is low when
the blood has more water and less amount of
salts
 Mechanism of Osmoregulation

 Osmoregulation is controlled by two hormones

that are the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and
aldosterone
 Both hormones work through a negative
feedback mechanism to regulate the water and
salt content in the blood by the process of
reabsorption
 The antidiuretic hormone controls the
absorption of water
 The aldosterone controls the reabsorption of
salts
When blood osmotic pressure rises above the
normal value:
 When very salty salt is eaten or too much water is
lost by sweating, the osmotic pressure in the
blood increases
 Sensory cells in the hypothalamus called
osmoreceptor cells detect the change in the
osmotic pressure and send impulses to the
posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
 This causes the pituitary gland to secrete more
ADH into the bloodstream
 The ADH increases the permeability of the walls
of the distal convoluted tube and collecting duct
towards the reabsorption of water
 As a result, more water is reabsorbed back from the
tubule into the blood capillaries
 This lowers the osmotic pressure to its normal level
 It also decreases the volume of urine produced
 Hence the urine produced is little but concentrated

When blood osmotic pressure falls below the normal

value
 When a person drink too much water, the osmotic
pressure decreases
 Osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus detect the
low osmotic pressure and trigger the adrenal glands
to secrete aldosterone
 The pituitary gland releases less antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
 The aldosterone hormone increases the
permeability of the walls of the tubule towards
the reabsorption of salts
 More salts are reabsorbed from the tubule and
the osmotic pressure is increased to its normal
level
 Less water is reabsorbed from the tubule
 Hence more urine is produced but in a dilute
form
Consequences of Impaired Kidney Function
 Kidney failure is the failure of the kidney tubules to
excrete water, sodium ions or urea, resulting in an
over-accumulation of these substances in the
blood
 Kidney failure may be caused by:
• High blood pressure
• Bacterial infection
• Mechanical injury
 If both kidney fail to function, the patient can still
continue to live by either
• Undergoing haemodialysis, or
• Having a kidney transplant
 Haemodialysis
 Haemodialysis is a process whereby a dialysis
machine is used to remove metabolic wastes such
as excess water, urea and excess mineral salts from
the blood

The principal ideas of haemodialysis

 Blood is withdrawn from the body from an opening
in an artery
 Blood is then pumped through the tubing of a
dialysis machine to filter away waste products and
to restore its normal constituents before being
returned to the body via the vein
This is how the blood is filtered and restored in the
dialysis machine:
 The tubing of a dialysis machine is made of partially
permeable membrane
 The tubing is bathed in a dialysis fluid of special
composition, called the dialysate
 When the blood flows through the tubing, the fine
pores in the wall of this tubing only allow small
molecules such as urea and other waste products to
diffuse into the dialysate
 Macromolecules such as protein and blood cells
cannot go through the pores and so they remain
with the blood inside the tubing
 Other subtances such as salts and glucose, which are
needed by the body, are also small enough to go
through the pores (from the tubing into the dialysate)
 But, these needed substances are prevented from
diffusing out of the tubing as the dialysate is specially
made up to have the same concentration as normal
tissue fluid
 Since both the dialysate and the blood in the tubing
have the same concentration, the outward and the
inward diffusion of, for example glucose, are in
equilibrium
 Since excess salts, urea and other wastes are absent
from the dialysate, they diffuse from the blood to the
dialysate
 Kidney transplant
 In a kidney transplant, the failed kidneys are
replaced with a working kidney from another person
, who is called a donor
 A transplant provides a patient with a healthy kidney
that can keep up with the demands of a full, active
life
 Kidney transplant, is highly technical as the donor’s
kidney has to match with the recipient’s body or else
the donated kidney would be rejected
 Patients who receive a transplant must take
medication and are monitored by a medical doctor
who specialises in kidney diseases for the rest of
their lives
 Corrective mechanism
> Liver cells to use glucose for respiration and to convert excess glucose to
glycogen
> Liver to store excess glucose as glycogen
> Muscle cells to use glucose for respiration and to convert glucose to
glycogen and to store glycogen and build proteins
> adipose tissue to use glucose for respiration and to use glucose to form
fat

Pancreas secretes
e
lu cos insulin
G vel
le s
e
ris

Normal glucose level

Glu
c
lev ose
fal el
ls Pancreas secretes
glucagon
Corrective mechanism
> Liver to break down glycogen to glucose
> adipose tissue to break down lipids which release
fatty acids that can be metabolised to generate
energy
 Regulation of body temperature

 the human body temperature is maintained at

37C - 39 C by regulating heat gain and heat
loss that our body maintains a constant
temperature.
 skins plays an important role in regulating the
body temperature.
Skin structures
 Thermoreceptors
consists of receptors and warm receptors in the
skin that detect changes in the environmental
temperature.
these thermoreceptors are important for
detecting changes in the core temperature of
the body.
 Hypothalamus
detect changes in the temperature of the
blood flowing past it.
 The thermoreceptors are stimulated by the
changes in temperature of the body.

 nerve impulses are transmitted along the

afferent neurone to the hypothalamus that
acts as the temperature regulatory centre.
 it cause the effectors to respond by negative
feedback through corrective mechanism to
restore the temperature back to its normal
level.
Effectors
respond

Process of
Physical
metabolism(which
means(involving the
involves the endocrine
skin)
glands)
Regulating of body temperature by physical
means
In cold environment In warm environment
(a) action of hair erector
muscles
- hair erector muscles are - Hair erector muscles relax
stimulated to contract - hairs lie flat
- hairs become erect - very little air is trapped ,
- a thick layer of air is heat is easily lost by
trapped conduction and radiation.
- air being a poor conducter
of heat prevent heat loss by
conduction and radiation.
 (b) Action of blood capillaries

- vasoconstriction - vasodilation
occur;blood capillaries occus;blood capilaries
constrict dilate
- less blood flows close to - more blood flows into
the body surface the capillaries and close
- heat loss by conduction to the body surface
and radiation is reduced - heat loss by conduction
and radiation is
increased
 (c) action of sweat glands

- Sweat glands inactive - Sweat glands active

- Less sweat produced - Increase in sweating
- Rate of evaporation - Rate of evaporation of
very low sweat is high
- Heat is conserved - Heat is loss from the
skin, cooling the skin
 Regulation of body temperature by
metabolism process
In cold environment In warm environment
(a) Action of muscles (a) Action of muscles

. Voluntary muscular
activity is increased . Voluntary muscular
such as rubbing the activity is reduced . less
hands to keep warm. heat is lost.
. Involuntary muscles . Involuntary muscles
contract and relax activity is reduced . Less
frequently to shivering heat is lost.
to produce heat.
 (b) Action of adrenal glands

• adrenal glands • Adrenal glands not

stimulate the secretion stimulated
of adrenaline which • Less or no adrenaline
causes an increases in released
the metabolic rate. • Metabolic rate is
• more heat is produced reduced
• Less or no heat is
produced
 (c) Action of thyroid gland

• The thyroid glands is • Thyroid gland not

stimulated to secrete stimulated
thyroxine • Too little thyroxine is
• Metabolic rate is secreted
increased • Metabolic rate is
• More heat is produced normal
• Less heat is produced
 Summary
• Owning to the methods • Owning to the two
of regulation of body methods temperature ,
temperature , less heat more heat is lost and
is lost and more heat is less heat is being
being produced. produced.
• This increases the body • This decreases the body
temperature back to temperature back to
the normal level. normal.
• Negative feedback has • Negative feedback has
occurred. occurred.
 Concept of homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the process by which the

condition of the internal environment is
maintained in spite of the changing external
environment
• To maintain homeostasis, both the nervous
system and the endocrine system are involved
in internal communication
• If communication is by hormones, then the effectors
which carry out the response are the target organs
• If communication is by nerve impulses, then the
effectors that bring about the corrective responses
are the muscles and glands
 Practising a healthy life style
• Drugs and alcohol can impair the functioning
of the nervous system
• Dugs maybe useful or harmful to the user
• Useful drugs are drugs taken under medical
supervision to kill harmful microbes and to
relieve pain
• Ex: aspirin, paracetamol and penicillin
• Other legal drugs include substances such as
nicotine in cigarette smoke, caffeine in coffee and
tea.
• Harmful drugs give pleasant short-term effects to
users
• Such drugs are classified as narcotics which can
affect the functioning of the nervous system by
interfering with synapses
• Users usually become dependent and eventually
become addicted to the drugs
• Frequent use of drugs (drug abuse) leads to
tolerance which means the users subsequently
needs higher doses to achieve the same effects
• Stimulants
– Drugs that increase the actions regulated by the
nervous system
– Increase heart rate, blood pressure and
breathing rate
– Increase the release of neurotransmitters at
some synapses in the brain leading to a feeling
of energy and well-being
 – Ex: cocaine, nicotine, amphetamines and
caffeine
– Prolonged use can cause circulatory problems,
hallucinations and psychological depression
• Depressants
– Drugs that slow down the activity of the central
nervous system
– Slow down the heartbeat rate and the breathing
rate
– Lowers blood pressure, relaxes muscles and
relieves tension
 – Makes the user feel sleepy and less anxious
– Ex: barbiturates, tranquilisers and heroin
– The abuse of these drugs results in memory
loss, inability to concentrate, respiratory
diseases, lung cancer, liver and brain damage,
sleepiness, confusion, blood and liver diseases,
convulsions, coma and even death

• Alcohol is a depressant that slow down the rate at

which the central nervous system functions
– slow down reflexes, disrupts coordination and
impairs judgement
– Can cause confusion, poor muscle coordination
and blurred vision
– Can sometimes make a person angry and even
violent
– Over a long period, the abuse of alcohol can
cause destruction of cells in the brain and liver
and lead to addiction and emotional dependence
– Can cause alcoholism