Geotechnical Engineering II

CE 481
Shear Strength of Soil

Chapter 10: Sections# 10.2 and 10.3

Chapter 12: All sections except 12.13, 12.14,
12.15, 12.17, 12.18
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane test)
 Stress Path
INTRODUCTION
o Soil failure usually occurs in the form of “shearing” along
internal surface within the soil.
o The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per
unit area that the soil mass can offer to resist failure and
sliding along any plane inside it.
o The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the
strength of the soil.
o Shear strength determination is a very important aspect in
geotechnical engineering. Understanding shear strength is
the basis to analyze soil stability problems like:
• Bearing capacity.
• Lateral pressure on earth retaining structures
• Slope stability
Bearing Capacity Failure

Strip footing

Failure surface

Mobilized shear resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (mobilized

shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Bearing Capacity Failure
Transcona Grain Elevator, Canada (Oct. 18, 1913)
Bearing Capacity Failure
Slope Failure






The soil grains slide

over each other along
At failure, shear stress along
the failure surface.
the failure surface () reaches
the shear strength (f).
Slope Failure
Failure of Retaining Walls

Retaining
wall

Mobilized shear
Retaining
resistance
wall

Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (mobilized

shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testings (Vane test)
 Stress Path
BASIC PRINCIPLES
The brick (solid block) is in equilibrium under its own W Extra
weight W and the opposite and equal reaction N.
A horizontal force Sa is applied:
N
i) If Sa is relatively small then the brick will remain
at rest and Sa will be balanced by an equal and
opposite force Sr.
ii) As Sa increases, Sr will also increase with the R W
same magnitude until Sa exceeds a certain 
Sa
limit, then the brick will move. d
Sr
This movement or slippage is a shear failure, where
• Sa is applied shearing force N
/
R
• Sr is shearing resistance.
Up to the moment of failure Sr = Sa.
Question:
What is the magnitude of Sa required to move the brick (i.e. to
cause failure)
Answer:
That mainly depends on two factors: Extra
1. The friction between the brick and the table. The larger the
value of (static) friction coefficient  the larger is Sa required
to move the brick.
2. The weight of the brick. The larger is W the larger is Sa
necessary for sliding.
In general
Sa = W.  = W. tan  …… (1)
Sr = N.  = N. tan  d …….(2)
 is called the obliquity of the resultant or simply the obliquity
angle.
d is called the DEVELOPED FRICTION ANGLE
Since N = W, and Sr = Sa then
d =  ………..(3)
Equation (3) is true up until the moment of sliding.
When the applied shearing resistance Sa reaches a certain value
Saf, which has an obliquity angle m, then
 • The obliquity angle d reaches its maximum .
• The shearing resistance Sr has reached its maximum Extra
possible value for the material.
  is called the FRICTION ANGLE
 Srf is called the SHEAR STRENGTH R W
m
From Eq. (2)
Saf
Srf = N. tan  ………(4) Srf

Or if we use only one subscript for clarity /
R
N
Sf = N. tan  ….….(5)
If we divide by the cross-sectional area

tf = sn. tan  … ….(6)

In which f = the shearing strength (shearing stress at failure)
n = Normal stress acting on the failure plane
 = Friction angle
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane test)
 Stress Path
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS
o Coulomb (1776) observed that there was a stress-dependent
component of shear strength and a stress-independent
component.
o The stress-dependent component is similar to sliding friction
in solids described above. The other component is related to
the intrinsic COHESION of the material. Coulomb proposed
the following equation for shear strength of soil:
𝝉 𝒇 =𝑪+ 𝝈 𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅ … .(𝟕) 

cohesion Friction 
f = shear strength of soil
n = Applied normal stress
C = Cohesion
 = Angle of internal friction (or 
angle of shearing resistance)
o Cohesion (c), is a measure of the forces that cement
particles of soils (stress independent).

o Internal Friction angle (φ), is a measure of the shear

strength of soils due to friction (stress dependent).

o For granular materials, there is no cohesion between

particles and Eq. (7) is reduced to
𝝉 𝒇 =𝝈 𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅ …..(𝟖)
o We can see that Eq. 6 and Eq. 8 are identical.
o Physically is it the case?
Answer:
o Although the two equations are the same, however, the
difference is in the meaning of .
• In solids  is dependent on the roughness or friction of the
sliding solids.
• In granular soils, the friction angle  represents the sum of
sliding friction and interlocking. Therefore, it is designated
angle of internal friction.
o Where is sliding friction is more or less constant in a given
soil, interlocking is dependent on
1. Particle shape and size
2. Densification
o But both sliding and lifting depend on the applied normal
stress.
o For cohesive soils cohesion is not equal to zero and Eq. 7
holds true. Cohesion is high especially for overconsolidated
clays.

Important notes:.
o Even though in clay the relation between f and n is related
to the angle  , however in clay the nature of  is not the
same as the friction angle of granular soil or of solids in
contact.
o Soil derives its shear strength from two sources:
• Cohesion: between particles
- Cementation between sand grains
- Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
• Frictional resistance: between particles
Saturated Soils

𝝉 𝒇 =𝑪 ′ +𝝈 ′ 𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅ ′ … . (𝟗)
But from the principle of effective stress

𝝈 ′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖 … … … . (𝟏𝟎 )
Where u is the pore water pressure (p.w.p.)

Then Eq. (9) becomes

𝝉 𝒇 =𝑪′ +(𝝈 ¿ ¿ 𝒏−𝒖)𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅ ′ … .(𝟏𝟏)¿

o C ,  or C’ , ’ are called strength parameters, and we will discuss

various laboratory tests for their determination.
o But before that we need to know what is failure. This, on the other
hand, requires specification of the failure plane in order to find sn in
Eq. 11.
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane test)
 Stress Path
Review of Basic Concepts
I. Normal and Shear Stress along a Plane
We will consider only two-dimensional case
sy
tyx

txy
sx sx
txy
Soil element
tyx
sy
Since the soil element is in equilibrium, it follows by taking moments
about any corner that txy = tyx
o Note that for convenience our sign convention has compressive forces
and stresses positive because most normal stresses in geotechnical
engineering are compressive.
o These conventions are the opposite of those normally assumed in
structural mechanics.
• We want to find normal stress sn and shear stress tn on plane
EF which makes an angle q with x-direction
sy N
txy
D C sn F
tn
txy
sx sx sx
txy txy
q q
A B T E B
txy txy

sy sy

• To obtain sn and tn, we sum the components of forces that

act on the element in the N and T directions.
• Assume the area of EF = 1
Then the area of EB = 1. cos  sy > s x
The area of FB = 1. Sin 
 For Normal stress along plane (sn): N

∑ 𝑭 𝑵 =𝟎 sn tn F

sx
txy
q
T E txy B
......(1) sy

For Shear stress along plane (tn):

Equation (1) and (2) can

be used to calculate
NORMAL and shearing
stresses on any plane
making an angle q with
the x-direction.

..........(2)
II. Principal Planes and Principal Stresses
o From Eq. (2) we can see that at a certain angle , the shear
stress will be equal to zero
 y x
0 sin 2   xy cos 2
2
2 xy
tan 2p ..............(3)
 y  x

o For given values of xy , x , y Eq (3) will give two values of p

which are 90o apart. This means that there are two PLANES
that are at right angles to each other on which the shear
stress is zero.
o Such planes are called PRINCIPAL PLANES and the normal
stress acting on them are termed PRINCIPAL STRESSES.
o These principle stresses are obtained by substituting Eq. (3)
into Eq. (1) to get:
 Major Principal Stress:
2
 x  y x 
 n  1  y
2
 
 2
   xy2

.........(4)
Minor Principal Stress:
........(5)
2
 x  y x 
n  3  y      xy2
2  2 

Now in terms of principal stress Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) becomes
cos2 .......(6) Sin2 ......(7)

Note: Eqs. (4) and (5) can also be obtained by differentiating Eq. (1)
with respect to 2 to get the maximum and minimum values of n .
Therefore we can conclude that:
• Whenever shear stress on any plane is zero, the plane is
called PRINCIPAL PLANE. this plane has either the maximum
principal stress or the minor principal stress
• For planes with major and minor principal stresses the value
of shear stress is zero.
II. Maximum shear stress
The maximum shear stress can be obtained by differentiating Eq. (2)
w.r.t 2, i.e.
tan2 …….(8)

Eq. (8) is the negative reciprocal of Eq. (3).

This means that the shearing stress reaches EXTREME values on planes
making 90o with the directions described by 2p. In real space, however the
angle is of interest rather than . Therefore the extreme values of
shear stress are reached at 45o to direction defined by .
If we substitute the value of into Eqs. (1) and (2) we get

)9(.……
Note

[( ]
𝟏 We could simply reach
)
𝟐
𝝈𝒚 − 𝝈 𝒙 𝟐
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =± +𝝉 𝟐𝒙𝒚 )10(.…… Eq. 11 from Eq. 7.
𝟐
Check that
It is clear from Eqs. (4), (5) and (10) that. Dealing with principal
𝝈𝟏− 𝝈𝟑 planes is easier as only we
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = )11(..……… have two terms instead of
𝟐 three.
In brief
Now from Eqs. 1 through 11 we could find:
1. Normal stress on any plane
2. Shear stress on any plane n
3. Angle of principal planes p
4. Major principal stress
5. Minor principal stress
6. Angle of max plane
7. Maximum shear stress max
8. Normal stress on plane of max
• The analytical procedure is sometimes
awkward to use in practice.
• We will discuss now a graphical procedures which will enable us
to find the above without the hassle of going over many
equations.
III. Graphical Method Representation of State of Stress
In terms of principal stress, normal and shear stress on a plane Extra
inclined at an angle q are given by Eq. 6 and Eq. 7, respectively.

Sin2
From Eq. (7)
..….(12)
−
𝝈𝟑 )
𝟏
𝝈
(
From the figure across 𝟐 
Cos2
2

[( ) −𝝉 ]
𝟐 𝟏
𝝈𝟏− 𝝈𝟑 𝟐 𝟐
..….(13)
𝟐

Substituting Eq. (13) =

)14( ..……
into Eq. 6 yields

Squaring Eq. (14) gives

= …… (15)

Equation (15) is the equation of a circle whose center has the coordinates and
whose radius is
Notes
o When the circle of Eq. (15) is plotted in  -  space, it is
known as the Mohr’s Circle of stress (Mohr, 1887). It
represents the state of stress at a POINT at EQUILIBRIUM
and it applies to any material, not just a soil.
o Mohr’s Circle is a two-dimensional graphical
representation of the state of stress at a point.
o The scales of  and  have to be the same to obtain a
circle from Eq. (15).
o The Mohr’s circle construction enables the stresses acting
in different directions at a point on a plane to be
determined, provided that the stress acting normal to the
plane is a principal stress.
o The normal stress and shear stress that act on any plane
can also be determined by plotting a Mohr’s circle.
 Sign Convention in Mohr’s circle

= …… (15)
Shear stress, t

)sx,txy(
sy tyx
txy
sx sx
Normal stress, s
txy
)sy, -txy( tyx
sy

y x  y x 
2

    xy2
2  2  Sign Normal Shear
Convention Stresses Stresses
𝝈 𝟏+ 𝝈 𝟑 𝝈𝟏− 𝝈𝟑 Positive Compression Counter
𝟐 𝟐 clockwise
rotation
Negative Tension Clockwise
rotation
• Construction of Mohr’s Circle Note:
1. Plot σy, txy as point M We could construct two additional
2. Plot σx, txy as point R Mohr circles for 1 and 2 and 2
3. Connect M and R and 3 to complete Mohr diagram.
4. Draw a circle of diameter of the line
RM about the point where the line
RM crosses the horizontal axis
(denote this as point O)

o The points R and M in Fig. (b) above represent the stress conditions on
plane AD and AB, respectively. O is the point of intersection of the normal
stress axis with the line RM.
o The circle MNQRS drawn with O as the center and OR as the radius is
Mohr’s circle for the stress conditions considered. The radius of the
Mohr’s circle is equal to

o The stress on plane EF can be determined by moving an angle 2q (which

is twice the angle that the plane EF makes in a counterclockwise direction
with plane AB) in a counterclockwise direction from point M along the
circumference of the Mohr’s circle to reach point Q. The abscissa and
ordinate of point Q, respectively, give the normal stress sn and the shear
stress tn on plane EF.
o Because the ordinates (that is, the shear stresses) of points N and S are
zero, they represent the stresses on the principal planes. The abscissa of
point N is equal to s1 and the abscissa for point S is s3.
Special Case

Next we will see a more powerful method for finding stress on

any plane.
Pole Method for Finding Stresses on a Plane
o There is a unique point on the Mohr’s circle called the POLE or the
ORIGIN of PLANES. This point has a very useful property:
Any straight line drawn through the pole will intersect the Mohr’s
circle at a point which represents the state of stress on a plane
inclined at the same orientation in space as the line.
o This concept means that if you know the state of stress, s and t, on
some plane in space, you can draw a line parallel to that plane through
the coordinates of s and t on the Mohr circle.
o The pole then is the point where that line intersects the Mohr circle.
o Once the pole is known, the stresses on any plane can readily be found
by simply drawing a line from the pole parallel to that plane; the
coordinates of the point of intersection with the Mohr circle determine
the stresses on that plane.
?How to determine the location of the Pole
sy
tyx F
txy
Shear stress, t

sx sx
)sx, txy( (sn, tn) on plane EF
q txy
E
tyx
sy
2q Normal stress, s

q
)sy, -txy(
P Note: it is assumed that sy > sx

1. From a point of known stress coordinates and plane

orientation, draw a line parallel to the plane where the stress is
acting on.

2. The line intersecting the Mohr circle is the pole, P.

Using the Pole to Determine Principal Planes

tyx sy
Shear stress, t

F
txy
sx sx
)sx, txy( s1

txy
E
tyx
sy
s3
Normal stress, s

qp
Direction of Major
P )sy, -txy(
Principal Plane
Direction of Minor
Principal Plane
Example 1
For the stresses of the element shown across,
determine the normal stress and the shear stress
on the plane inclined at a = 35o from the
horizontal reference plane.
Solution
 = = 32 kPa

 = = 20 kPa

 Plot the Mohr circle to some convenient scale

(See the figure across).
 Establish the POLE

 Draw a line through the POLE inclined at

angle a = 35o from the horizontal plane it
intersects the Mohr circle at point C.
sa = 39 kPa
ta = 18.6 kPa
You should verify these results by using Eqs. (6),(7)
Example 2
The same element and stresses as in
Example 1 except that the element is
rotated 20o from the horizontal as
shown.
Solution
 Since the principal stresses are
the same, the Mohr circle will be
the same as in Example 1.

 Establish the POLE.

 Draw a line through the POLE

inclined at angle a = 35o from
the plane of major principal
stress. It intersects the Mohr
circle at point C.
 The coordinates of point C
yields
sa = 39 kPa
ta = 18.6 kPa
REMARKS
 sa and ta are the same as in example 1. Why is this? Because nothing
has changed except the orientation in space of the element.
 We could just as well have used the minor principal plane as our
starting point to establish the POLE.
 We could just as well rotate the t-s axis to coincide with the
directions of the principal stresses in space, but traditionally t
versus s is plotted with the axes horizontal and vertical.
 We can see that the Mohr circle of stress represents the complete
two-dimensional state of stress at equilibrium in an element or at a
point.
 The pole simply couples the Mohr circle to the orientation of the
element in the real world.
 The Mohr circle and the concept of the POLE are very useful in
geotechnical engineering.
 The construction of Mohr’s circle is one of the few graphical
techniques still used in engineering. It provides a simple and clear
picture of an otherwise complicated analysis.
Example 3
Example 4
Given the stress shown on the element across. Find the magnitude and
direction of the major and minor principal stresses.

8k

y
N/

m2
m2

N/
4k
x
m2
N/
2k

m2
N/
2k

m2
45 o

N/
4k
2
m
N/

x
8k
y
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane test)
 Stress Path
FAILURE CRITERIA FOR SOILS
o There are many ways of defining failure in real materials,
or put another way, there are many failure criteria.
o Various theories are available for different engineering
materials. However, no one is general for all materials
o The one generally accepted and used for soil is Mohr
Theory of Failure.
o According to Coulomb relation for shear strength
𝝉 𝒇 = 𝑪 + 𝝈 𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅
Where is the normal stress on the failure plane.
From the previous slides we new know how to estimate but we still
need to know the plane of failure.
What is the failure plane?
• Is it the plane with the maximum shear stress?…. No.
• Is it the plane of the maximum normal stress (i.e. major
principal stress)…. No.
Mohr Theory of Failure
Mohr theory of failure states that:
A material fails along the plane and at the time at which the angle between the
RESULTANT of the NORMAL and SHEARING STRESS and the NORMAL
STRESS is a maximum; that is , when the combination of NORMAL and
SHEARING stresses produces the maximum obliquity angle m.
 sn
s1

D s3
C
2qf
tn
a am qf q 2q
O A B 
Pole
s3
s1
o In the across diagram, it is  sn
seen that the optimum
stress combination which
fulfills Mohr’s criterion is
D
that represented by the
point D, and the C
2qf
orientation of the failure tn
plane is represented by am qf q
the line AD which makes a 2q
an angle qf with the
O A B 
maximum principal plane. Pole
s3
s1

o Since, according to the Mohr theory, the tangent line OD represents the
stress situation at failure, the maximum obliquity angle m is equal to
the friction angle , just as indicated in the case of the brick sliding on a
horizontal surface.
Mohr Failure Envelope
o By plotting Mohr’s circles for different states of stresses
and in each case draw a tangent to each circle from the
origin we come up with points 1,2,3… etc. If we connect
those points we come up with what is called Mohr’s
failure envelope.
t
•C 3
Mohr failure
2 •B envelope

1 •A

s3c s3b s1c s3a s1b s1a s

o This envelope separates cases of stresses which cause
failure from that which do not.
o For instance if the normal stress and shear stress on a
plane in a soil mass are such that they plot as point A
shown above, shear failure will not occur along that plane.
o For point B failure takes place, and point C cannot exist,
since it plots above failure envelope and shear failure in a
soil would have occurred already.
o Therefore, failure occurs only when the combination of
shear and normal stress is such that the Mohr circle is
TANGENT to the Mohr failure envelope.
o Then once the point of the tangency is determined the
angle of failure plane and the stresses ( )f can be
determined using the POLE method.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
o The disadvantages of Mohr failure envelope is that it is a
curved line, and needs a lot of tests to construct and difficult
to use.
o It was then approximated to be a straight line, and the
equation for the line was written in terms of the Coulomb
strength parameters C and  , as
𝝉 𝒇 = 𝑪 + 𝝈 𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅
o This gave the birth to MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION,
which is by far the most popular criterion applied to soils.


 f  c   n tan 
f
 tan  nt
frictional
 one component
c omp
c c esi ve
co h
’f '
Orientation of Failure Plane
1


3


90+
 qf
h v + Ds 

Pole 2qf = 90 + f

Once we assume straight line failure envelope, qf = 45 + qf = 45 + f/2

This could be
f/2 always and independent of the values of s1 and s3
proved analytically
(i.e. confinement). (See Das)
Mohr circles & failure envelope
in terms of total and effective stress
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion in terms of effective stress


'
 f  c' ' tan  '   u
u = pore water pressure

e lo pe ’ C’ and f’ are called

re env the effective strength
f ail u
Effective parameters.
cohesion Effective
friction angle
f
c’
’f ’
In this case, soil behavior is controlled by effective stresses, and
the effective strength parameters are the fundamental strength
parameters.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion in terms of total stress


 f  c   tan 

el o pe 
env
ure
fail
Cohesion Friction angle
f
c
f 

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure,
under normal stress of .
What does the Failure Envelope Signify? (will not exist)

( failure)

(no failure)

 If the magnitudes of s and t on plane ab are such that they plot as point A
shear failure will not occur along the plane.
 If the effective normal stress and the shear stress on plane ab plot as point B
(which falls on the failure envelope), shear failure will occur along that plane.
 A state of stress on a plane represented by point C cannot exist, because it
plots above the failure envelope, and shear failure in a soil would have
occurred already.
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope


Failure surface  f  c' ' tan  '

Y
Y
X X
’
Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

The soil element does not fail

if the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL


v
Y h
h v v+

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

As loading progresses, Mohr

circle becomes larger…

GL Failure
point


v
Y h
h

.. and finally failure occurs

when Mohr circle touches
the envelope
Relationship between principle stresses and shear
strength parameters
Relationship between principle stresses and shear
strength parameters
Remarks
o C and  are measures of shear strength and are called shear
strength parameters.
o The parameters C, f are in general not soil constants. They
depend on the initial state of the soil (e.g. density, water
content), and type of loading (drained or undrained).
o In case of using effective stress, C’ and f’ are called
effective shear strength parameters.
o The value of C’ for sand and inorganic silt is 0. For normally
consolidated clays, C’ can be approximated at 0.
Overconsolidated clays have values of C’ that are greater
than 0.
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane test)
 Stress Path
Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
o The purpose of laboratory testing is to determine the shear
strength parameters of soil (C, f or C’, f’) through the
determination of failure envelope.
o The shear strength parameters for a particular soil can be
determined by means of laboratory tests on specimens
taken from representative samples of the in-situ soil.
o There are several laboratory methods available to
determine the shear strength parameters (i.e. C, f, C’, f’).
Some of the tests are rather complicated .
o For further details you should consult manuals and books
on laboratory testing, especially those by the ASTM.
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (C, f or C’, f’)

Laboratory Tests Field Tests

Most common laboratory tests 1. Standard penetration test

to determine the shear strength Pressuremeter
parameters are, 2. Vane shear test
1.Direct shear test 3. Pocket penetrometer
2.Triaxial shear test 4. Static cone penetrometer
Other laboratory tests include:
• Direct simple shear test Field test equipment and test
• Torsional or ring shear test methods are described in
• Hollow cylinder test most textbooks on foundation
• Plane strain triaxial test engineering.
• Laboratory vane shear test
• Laboratory fall cone test.
Laboratory testing must simulate field conditions and loading

Failure surface

Y
Triaxial Shear test

Direct Shear test

Soil elements at different locations
 svc + Ds
Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions in shc shc
the laboratory est
t
ial
x
0 svc ia
Tr svc + Ds

svc
D
0 0 shc shc ire ct
sh t
ea
r te
svc st t
0
Representative soil Step 1 svc
sample taken from
Set the specimen in the Step 2
the site
apparatus and apply the Apply the corresponding
initial stress condition field stress conditions
• In laboratory, a soil sample can fail in two ways:
Way 1: Increase normal stress Way 2: Normal stress is
(s1) to failure with confining applied and held constant then
stress (s3) constant shear stress is applied to
failure
s1 Normal Stress, sn

Shear Stress, t
s3 s3
t

s1 sn

Triaxial Shear Test Direct Shear Test

 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane test)
 Stress Path
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (C, f or C’, f’)

Laboratory Tests Field Tests

Most common laboratory tests 1. Standard penetration test

to determine the shear strength Pressuremeter
parameters are, 2. Vane shear test
1.Direct shear test 3. Pocket penetrometer
2.Triaxial shear test 4. Static cone penetrometer
Other laboratory tests include:
• Direct simple shear test Field test equipment and test
• Torsional or ring shear test methods are described in
• Hollow cylinder test most textbooks on foundation
• Plane strain triaxial test engineering.
• Laboratory vane shear test
• Laboratory fall cone test.
Direct Shear Test

P Steel ball

Pressure plate

Porous
plates

S
Soil
Proving ring
to measure
shear force
Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

Preparation of a sand specimen

Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface of Specimen preparation

specimen completed
Test Procedure
• A constant vertical force (normal stress) is applied through
a metal platen.
• Shear force is applied by moving one half of the box
relative to the other and increased to cause failure in the
soil sample.

• The tests are repeated on similar specimens at various

normal stresses

• The normal stresses and the corresponding values of tf

obtained from a number of tests are plotted on a graph
from which the shear strength parameters are determined.
Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame to Dial gauge to measure

horizontal displacement
apply vertical load
• The advantage of the strain-controlled tests
is that in the case of dense sand, peak shear
resistance (that is, at failure) as well as
lesser shear resistance (that is, at a point
after failure called ultimate strength) can
be observed and plotted.

• Compared with strain-controlled tests,

stress-controlled tests probably model real
field situations better.
Test results
Normal Load : _________ kg

Area of Sample: _________ cm2

Horizontal Dial Vertical Dial Horizontal Shear Stress
Reading Reading Shear Force (kPa)
(mm) (mm) (N)
Stress-strain relationship
Peak shear
Dense sand/

Shear stress, t
strength
OC clay
Ultimate shear
tf strength
Loose sand/
tf NC clay

Shear displacement
Expansion
Change in height
of the sample

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement
Compression

Loose sand/NC Clay

Determining strength parameters C and f
An example of testing three samples of a sand at the same relative
density just before shearing.
Shear stress, t

Normal stress = s3
Normal stress = s2
Normal stress = s1
tf2
tf1
tf3
Shear displacement
Shear stress at failure, tf

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope

• Sand is cohesionless, then C = 0

• Direct shear tests are drained and pore
f water pressures are dissipated, then u = 0
• Therefore, f = f ’

It is important to note that in

situ cemented sands may show
Normal stress,
s a C’ intercept.
In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a
very slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure
(therefore, one test would take several days to finish)
Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests
Shear stress at failure, tf

Overconsolidated clay (C’ ≠ 0)

Normally consolidated clay (c’ = 0)

’f

Normal stress,
s
Notes on Direct Shear Test
• This test is probably the oldest strength test because
Coulomb used a type of shear box test more than two
centuries ago to determine the necessary parameters for his
strength equation.
• The test is quick and inexpansive and common in practice.
• Used to determine the shear strength of both cohesive as
well as non-cohesive soils.
• The test equipment consists of a metal box in which the soil
specimen is placed. The box is split horizontally into two
halves.
• The shear test can be either stress controlled or strain
controlled.
• Tests on sands and gravels are usually performed dry. Water
does not significantly affect the (drained) strength.
o Usually only relatively slow drained tests are performed in
shear box apparatus. For clays rate of shearing must be chosen
to prevent excess pore pressures building up. For sands and
gravels tests can be performed quickly.
o If there are no excess pore pressures and as the pore pressure
is approximately zero the total and effective stresses will be
identical.
o The failure stresses thus define an effective stress failure
envelope from which the effective (drained) strength
parameters C’, f’ can be determined.
o Normally consolidated clays (OCR = 1) and loose sands do not
show separate peak and ultimate failure loci, and for soils in
these states C’ = 0.
o Overconsolidated clays and dense sands have peak strengths
with C’ > 0.
Advantages of direct shear test
o Inexpensive, fast, and simple, especially for granular
materials.
o Easiness of sample preparation in case of sand.
o Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid drainage
can be achieved
o Large deformations can be achieved by reversing shear
direction. This is useful for determining the residual strength
of a soil.
o Samples may be sheared along predetermined planes. This
is useful when the shear strengths along fissures or an
interface is required.
Disadvantages of direct shear test
o Failure occurs along a predetermined failure plane which
may not be the weakest plane.
o Non-uniform of shear stresses along failure surface in the
specimen. There are rather stress concentrations at the
sample boundaries, which lead to highly nonuniform stress
conditions within the test specimen itself.
o There is no means of estimating pore pressures, so effective
stresses cannot be determined and only the total normal
stress can be determined.
o It is very difficult if not impossible to control drainage,
especially for fine-grained soils. Consequently, the test is not
suitable for other than completely drained conditions.
Example 1
A direct shear test was performed on a clay sample. The
cross section are of the device is 6 cm x 6 cm.
Normal Load Shear Load
(kg) (kg)
360 260
720 380
1080 520
1440 640
Determine the shear envelope and shear strength parameters
for the clay.
Normal Load Normal Stress Shear Load at Shear Stress
(kg) (kg/cm2) failure at failure
(kg) (kg/cm2)
360 10 260 7.22
720 20 380 10.56
1080 30 520 14.44
1440 40 640 17.78
 Normal Load Normal Stress Shear Load at Shear Stress
(kg) (kg/cm2) failure at failure
(kg) (kg/cm2)
360 10 260 7.22
720 20 380 10.56
1080 30 520 14.44
1440 40 640 17.78

25

20

15

10

0
10 20 30 40 50
Example 2 (Prob.# 3 in the text book)
For a dry sand specimen in a direct shear test box, the following are given:
•Size of specimen: 63.5 mm 63.5 mm 31.75 mm (height)
• Angle of friction: 33°
• Normal stress: 193 kN/m2.
.Determine the shear force required to cause failure

t = 193 tan (33) = 125.33 kPa

Shear force = 125.33x 0.0635x0.0635 =
0.50538 kN = 505.38 N
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane test)
 Stress Path
Triaxial Shear Test
o The most reliable method now available for determination of
shear strength parameters.
o Entire books have been written on triaxial test .
o The test is used to measure the shear strength of a soil under
controlled drainage conditions.
o The test is designed to simulate actual field conditions.

representative
soil sample
svc z z
svc + Ds

shc shc shc shc

svc svc + Ds
Before construction After and during construction
o The test is called “triaxial” because the three principle
stresses are assumed to be known and controlled.
o The triaxial test is much more complicated than the direct
shear but also much more versatile.
o The failure plane can occur anywhere and we can control
the stress paths to failure reasonably well, which means
that complex stress paths in the field can more effectively
be modeled in the laboratory with the triaxial test.
Principles of Triaxial Test
To simulate field conditions, soil samples is subjected to the
following stages:
1. Saturation of sample (Check of B value)
2. Applying confining (cell) pressure (s3) is applied on the soil
sample. The confining pressure is within the range of that
subjected in the field.
3. Apply an increasing vertical stress (Ds = s1- s3) -termed the
deviator stress- until failure.
4. The specimen is free to fail on any weak plane or, as
sometimes occurs, to simply BULGE. Ds
s3 Deviator Principle
Stress, Ds or Dsd
s3 = Confining pressure
= s1-s3
= Cell pressure s3 s3

= All-around pressure
Triaxial Shear Test Device

Two ways for appying axial load

1. Application of dead weights or hydraulic pressure in equal increments until the
specimen fails.
2. Application of axial deformation at a constant rate by means of a geared or
hydraulic loading press. This is a strain-controlled test.
Triaxial Shear Test

Piston (to apply deviatoric

stress)
Failure plane

O-ring

impervious
Soil sample at membrane
failure Soil
sample Porous
stone
Perspex
cell Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure
pedestal Pore pressure
or
volume change
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample are Setting up the sample

carefully trimmed in the triaxial cell
Apparatus Assembly

Sample is covered with a

rubber membrane and Cell is completely
sealed filled with water
Apparatus Assembly

Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement
Types of Triaxial Tests
o Many variations of test procedure are possible with the
triaxial apparatus but the three principal types of test are as
follows:
Confining Pressure Shearing
• Consolidated o Drained (CD) Test
• Consolidated o Undrained (CU)Test
• Unconsolidated o Undrained (UU) Test

o Depends on whether drainage is allowed or not during the

confining or shearing stage.
o The different types of triaxial test are commonly designated
by a two-letter symbol. The first letter refers to what
happens BEFORE SHEAR that is whether the specimen is
consolidated or not. The second letter refers to the drainage
conditions during SHEAR, CD, CU, UU.
Types of Triaxial Tests
deviator stress

Step 1
3 Step 2 () = s1- s3

3 3
3 3

3+ Ds
3
Under Confining (cell) pressure 3 Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
Types of Triaxial Tests

Step 1 Step 2

Under Confining (cell) pressure 3 Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading

CD test UU test

CU test
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test (CD Test)
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane Test)
 Stress Path
I. Consolidated Drained Test (CD Test)

 No excess pore pressure throughout the test

 Very slow shearing to avoid build-up of pore pressure -

hence this test is termed the S-test (for “slow” test)
Can be days!

 Gives C’ and ’

 Note that at all the times during CD test, the pore

water pressure is essentially zero.

Use C’ and ’ for analysing fully drained Situations

(i.e. long term stability, very slow loading)
 Piston (to apply deviatoric
stress)

O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil
sample Porous
stone
Perspex
cell Water

Pore pressure
Cell pressure or
Back pressure volume change
pedestal
Stress conditions for the consolidated drained test
Total, s = Neutral, u + Effective, s’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
s3 s’3 = s3

s3 0 s’3 = s3
Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

s3 + Ds s’V = s3 + Ds = s’1

s3 0 s’h = s3 = s’3
Drainage

Step 3: At failure
s3 + Dsf s’Vf = s3 + Dsf = s’1f

s3 0 s’hf = s3 = s’3f
Drainage
 In saturated soil, the change in the
volume of the specimen (Vc) that takes
place during consolidation can be
obtained from the volume of pore water
drained.

Volume change of specimen caused by chamber-confining pressure

Volume change in loose sand and Volume change in dense sand and
normally consolidated clay during overconsolidated clay during
deviator stress application deviator stress application
 Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Dense sand or
Deviator stress, Dsd

OC clay
(Dsd)f
Loose sand or
(Dsd)f NC Clay
Volume change
of the sample

Axial strain
Expansion

Dense sand or
OC clay
Compression

Axial strain

Loose sand or
NC clay
 Strength parameters c’ and f’ Several tests on similar samples can be performed by
varying the confining pressure. Then s3 and s1 at
(Dsd)fc failure for each test are used to construct Mohr’s
Deviator stress, Dsd

Circle. From that M-C failure envelope can be

obtained.
Confining stress = s3c
Confining stress = s3b s1 = s3 + (Dsd)f
Confining stress = s3a
(Dsd)fb
(Dsd)fa

n f s3
Axial t a
s
strain tf =
p
el o
e f’
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb nv
failure envelope uree
f ail
re ss
tiv e st
ec
Eff

s’
s3a s3b s3c s1a s1b s1c
(Dsd)fa
(Dsd)fb
o The coordinates of the point of tangency of the failure
envelope with Mohr’s circle give the stresses (normal and
shear) on the failure plane of the respected test.
Failure envelopes for loose sand and NC Clay
o It is usually assumed that the C’ parameter for normally
consolidated non-cemented clays is essentially zero for all
practical purposes.
o Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine fd of
sand or NC clay

f’
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

s’
s3a s1a
(Dsd)fa
Failure envelopes for dense sand and OC Clay

c
t OC NC
f’
b

c s’
s3 s1 sc
(Dsd)f

For portion ab of the failure envelope For portion bc of the failure envelope
 Can you think about Direct shear and Triaxial Test w.r.t. analysis of results
sn
s1 and s3 for each test from
t s1 = s3 + (Dsd)f
that we plot Mohr circle and
then we plot tangent to the
Shear stress, t

circles (if is assumed = 0)

Normal stress = s3 only we need one circle)
s3
Normal stress = s2
(Dsd)fc

Deviator stress, Dsd

tf2 Normal stress = s1 Confining stress = s3c
tf3 tf1
Confining stress = s3b
Shear displacement
Here we have sn and t for Confining stress = s3a
each test and we plot the
(Dsd)fb
(Dsd)fa
Shear stress at failure, tf

M-C. If we need principal

stress we plot Mohr circle
Axial strain
which goes the point on
Mohr – f’
Shear stress,
the M-Cfor the concerned
test Coulomb
f failure
envelope
s’
t

s3a s3b s3c s1a s1b s1c

Normal stress, s
Example 1
For a normally consolidated clay specimen, the results of a drained triaxial
test are as follows:
• Chamber-confining pressure = 125 kN/m2
• Deviator stress at failure = 175 kN/m2
’
Determine the soil friction angle, f
Solution
s1 = 175+125 = 300 kN/m2
Sin f’ = (s1- s3)/(s1+ s3)
f’ =24.3o
Example 2
In a consolidated-drained triaxial test on a clay, the specimen failed at a
deviator stress of 124 kN/m2. If the effective stress friction angle is known to
be 31°, what was the effective confining pressure at failure?
We can solve it graphically. We
Solution know phi so we plot M-C envelope.
Sin 31 = (s1- s3)/(s1+ s3) = 124/Sin (s1+ s3) (s1-s3)/2 equal the radius of Mohr
circle Through trial we plot the
240 kN/m2=)s1+ s3( circle that touch the M-C. From that
124 kN/m2= )s1- s3( we know s1 and s3
Two eqs. Two unknowns s1=182 kN/m2, s3= 58 kN/m2
Graphical Solution

t
200

150

31o
100

50

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 s

Draw a circle with a radius of

If there is any slight difference from the 62 and move it left until
analytical solution it is because the grid is toughing the M-C envelope
not perfect square
 Example 3
Samples of dry sand are to be tested in a direct shear and a triaxial test. In the
triaxial test the sample fails when the major and minor principal stresses are
450 kN/m2 and 150 kN/m2, respectively. What shear strength be expected in the
direct shear test when the normal loading is equal to a stress of 80 kN/m2.
Solution
Sin f’ = (s1- s3)/(s1+ s3) = (450-150)/(450/150) = 0.5
Hence f’ =30o
t = sn tan f’ = 80 tan 30 = 46.2 kN/m2

Graphical
t
Solution 200

150
30o
100

50

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 s

 Example 4
A conventional consolidated-drained (CD) triaxial test is conducted on a
sand. The cell pressure is 100 kN/m2, and the applied axial stress at failure is
200 kN/m2.
Required:
a. Plot the Mohr circle for both the initial and failure stress conditions.
b. The friction angle (Assume c = 0)
c. The shear stress on the failure plane at failure.
d. The theoretical angle of the failure plane in the specimen.
e. The orientation of the plane of the maximum obliquity
f. The maximum shear stress at failure and the angle of the plane on
which it acts.
g. The available shear strength on the plane of maximum shear and the
factor of safety on this plane.
Required:
a. Plot the Mohr circle for both the initial and failure stress conditions.
b. The friction angle (Assume c = 0)
c. The shear stress on the failure plane at failure.
d. The theoretical angle of the failure plane in the specimen.
e. The orientation of the plane of the maximum obliquity
f. The maximum shear stress at failure and the angle of the plane on which it acts.
g. The available shear strength on the plane of maximum shear and the factor of safety on this plane.

200

150

100 t f

50

30o
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Some practical applications of CD analysis for clays
o The limiting drainage conditions modeled in the triaxial test refer to real
filed situations.
o CD conditions are the most critical for the long-term steady seepage case
for embankment dams and the long-term stability of excavations or
slopes in both soft and stiff clays.
EXAMPLES OF CD ANALYSIS
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers, over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay
t
t = in situ drained
shear strength
Earth dam with steady state seepage .2

t t = drained shear
strength of clay
Core core

3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

t = In situ drained shear strength

Note on CD test:

 CD test simulates the long term condition in the field. Thus, Cd

and fd should be used to evaluate the long term behavior of
soils.
 CD test is called s-test because the stress difference is applied
very slowly to ensure that no p.w.p. develops during the test.
 Time to failure ranges from a day to several weeks for fine-
grained soils.

 Such a long time leads to practical problems in the laboratory

such as leakage of valves, seals, and the membrane that
surrounds the sample.
 Therefore CD triaxial test is uncommon and not a popular in
most soil laboratories.
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test (CU Test)
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane Test)
 Stress Path
 Piston (to apply deviatoric
stress)

O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil
sample Porous
stone
Perspex
cell Water

Pore pressure
Cell pressure or
Back pressure volume change
pedestal
II. Consolidated Unrained Test (CU Test)
 As the name implies, the test specimen is first consolidated
(drainage valves open) under the desired consolidation
stresses.
 After consolidation is complete, the drainage valves are
closed, and the specimen is loaded to failure in undrained
shear.
 Often, the pore water pressures developed during shear are
measured, and both the total and effective stresses may be
calculated during shear and at failure. Thus this test can
either be a total or an effective stress test.
 This test is sometimes called the R-test.
 The CU test is the most common type of triaxial test.
 CD tests on clay soils take considerable time. For this
reason, CU tests can be conducted on such soils with pore
pressure measurements to obtain drained shear strength
parameters.
 Because drainage is not allowed in these tests during the
application of deviator stress, they can be performed
quickly.
 Like the CD test, the axial stress can be increased
incrementally or at a constant rate of strain..
 Positive pore pressures occur in normally consolidated clays
and negative pore pressures occur in overconsolidated
clays.
Stress conditions for the consolidated undrained test

Total, s = Neutral, u + Effective, s’

Step 1: At the end of consolidation
s3 s’3 = s3

s3 0 s’3 = s3
Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

s3 + Ds s’V = s3 + Ds ± Du = s’1

No
drainage s3 ± Du s’h = s3 ± Du = s’3

Step 3: At failure
s3 + Dsf s’Vf = s3 + Dsf ± Duf = s’1f

No ± Duf
drainage s3 s’hf = s3 ± Duf = s’3f
Stress conditions for the consolidated drained test
Total, s = Neutral, u + Effective, s’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
s3 s’3 = s3

s3 0 s’3 = s3
Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

s3 + Ds s’V = s3 + Ds = s’1

s3 0 s’h = s3 = s’3
Drainage

Step 3: At failure
s3 + Dsf s’Vf = s3 + Dsf = s’1f

s3 0 s’hf = s3 = s’3f
Drainage
volume change in specimen caused by confining pressure

Variation of pore water pressure Variation of pore water pressure

with axial strain for loose sand with axial strain for dense sand
and normally consolidated clay and overconsolidated clay.
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Dense sand or

Deviator stress, Dsd

OC clay
(Dsd)f
Loose sand or
NC Clay
(Dsd)f

Axial strain
+

Loose sand
or NC Clay
Du

Axial strain
-

Dense sand or
OC clay

.ve p.w.p is because of a tendency of the soil to dilate-

Strength parameters C and f
(Dsd)fb
Deviator stress, Dsd s1 = s3 + (Dsd)f
Confining stress = s3b

Confining stress = s3a

s3
(Dsd)fa
Total stresses at failure
Axial
Shear stress, t

strain
Mohr – Coulomb failure f
envelope in terms of
total stresses

C
s
s3a s3b s1a s1b
(Dsd)fa
C and f are total strength parameters (Sometimes called Ccu and fcu which are
consolidated-undrained cohesion and angle of shearing resistance, respectively).
Effective and total stress Mohr circles
 Unlike the consolidated-drained test, the total and effective principal
stresses are not the same in the consolidated-undrained test.
 However, since we can get both the total and effective stress circles at
failure for a CU test when we measure the induced pore water pressures, it
is possible to define the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelopes in terms of both
total and effective stresses.

 For any point in the soil a total and an effective stress Mohr circle can be
drawn. These are the same size with

 The two circles are displaced horizontally by the pore pressure, u.

Failure envelopes for sand and NC Clay, Ccu and C’ = 0

Mohr – Coulomb failure

envelope in terms of
effective stresses

Mohr – Coulomb failure f’ f

Shear stress, t

envelope in terms of
total stresses

Note:
Effective For clarity, only on set of
Total Mohr circles is shown

s or s’
s3a s3a s1a s1a
(Dsd)fa

One CU test would be sufficient to determine f (=fcu) and

f’ (= fd) of sand or NC clay
Strength parameters C and f
s’1 = s3 + (Dsd)f - uf
• If Du is measured, then we can get
both the Total and Effective stress
circles at failure.

s’3 = s3 - uf
uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure
Shear stress, t

f’
f
Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

ufb
ufa
C’ C s’3a s’3b s’1a s’1b s or s’
s3a s3b s1a s1b
(Dsdd))fafa
(Ds
 (Same as that obtained from CD test) NC

OC

Typically, the complete Mohr failure

envelopes are determined by tests
on several specimens consolidated
over the working stress range of the
field problem.

The break in the total

stress envelope (point z)
occurs roughly at twice
s’p for typical clays.
Notes on CU test
• Shear Strength parameters in terms of total stresses are C and f or Ccu and fcu

• Shear Strength parameters in terms of effective stresses are C’ and f’.

• If the specimen tends to contract or consolidate during shear, then the

induced p.w.p. is +ve. This is in loose sand and N.C. clay.

• If the specimen tends to EXPAND or swell during shear, the Du decreases

and may be –ve. This occurs in Dense sand and OC clay.
• Since the shear strength is controlled by the effective stress in the specimen
at failure, the Mohr failure hypothesis is valid in terms of effective stresses
only. Hence, the point of tangency of effective M-C failure envelope to the
Mohr circle of effective stress is used to define qf .
• It is tacitly assumed that the Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters in terms
of effective stresses determined by CU tests with pore pressure
measurements would be the same as those determined by CD tests. We
used the same symbols, C’ and f’ for the parameters determined both
ways.
Some practical applications of CU analysis for clays
o CU strengths are used for stability problems where the soils have first
become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with the existing
stress system
o Then, for some reasons, additional stresses are applied quickly with no
drainage occurring.
o Practical examples include

1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft
clay t = in situ undrained
shear strength
t
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam. No drainage of the core

t = Undrained shear
t strength of clay core
Core

3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

t = In situ undrained shear strength

Disadvantages of CU Test
o It requires the measurement of Du which is not an easy
task and requires a great deal of care.
o The sample cannot be assured to be fully saturated.
o Effect of rate of loading. The stress-deformation and
strength response of clay soils is rate-dependent; that is,
usually the faster you load a clay, the stronger it becomes.
o There are two objectives that are incompatible.
o The rate of loading in one hand shall be slow that the proper
pressures measured at the ends of the specimen are the same as
those occurring in the vicinity of the failure plane.
o On the other hand, the rate of loading in the field may be quite
rapid, and therefore for correct modeling of the field situation, the
rate of loading in the laboratory sample should be comparable.
EXAMPLE 1
A normally consolidated clay was consolidated under a stress of 150
kPa, then sheared undrained in axial compression. The principal stress
difference at failure was 100 kPa, and the induced pore water pressure
at failure was 88 kPa.
Determine:-
a. The Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters in terms of both total and
effective stresses analytically and graphically.
b. The theoretical angle of the failure plane in the specimen.
s3 =150 kPa
s1 =150 +100 =250 kPa
200
s’3 = 150-88 =62 kPa
s’1 = 250-88 =162 kPa 150
Sin f = 100/(250+150)… > f =14.5o 27o
100
Sin f = 100/(162+62)… > f = 26.5
’ o
15o
50
qf = 45+ f’ /2 = 58o 58o
50 100 150 200 250 300
:Note
• Failure plane is obtained from effective Mohr circle
• Measuring p.w.p. makes it possible to obtained effective strength parameters
EXAMPLE 2
The shear strength of a normally consolidated clay can be given by the
equation tf = s tan 27°. Following are the results of a consolidated-
undrained test on the clay.
• Chamber-confining pressure = 150 kN/m2
• Deviator stress at failure = 120 kN/m2
a. Determine the consolidated-undrained friction angle
b. Pore water pressure developed in the specimen at failure
s3 =150 kN/m2
s1 =150 +120 =270 kN/m2
Sin f = (270-150)/(270+150)…. > f =16.6o
SIN f' = (s'1 - s'3) / (s'1 + s'3)
But deviatoric stress of total and effective are always equal, hence
s'1- s'3 = 120
Sin 27 = 120/(s'1+ s'3)
hence (s'1+ s'3) = 120/sin 27 = 264.3 kPa
 
The difference between the center of total and effective Mohr circles is equal to u, or
 u = (s1+ s3)/2 –(s'1- s'3)/2 = (270+150)/2 –(264.3)/2
Hence u = 77.85 kPa
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test (UU Test)
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane Test)
 Stress Path
III. Unonsolidated Unrained Test (UU Test)

Piston (to apply deviatoric

stress)

O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil
sample Porous
stone
Perspex
cell Water

Pore pressure
or
Cell pressure volume change
Back pressure
pedestal Closed all along
the UU test
 Stress conditions for the unconsolidated undrained test
Total, s = Neutral, u + Effective, s’
Step 1: After application of cell pressure
sC = s3 s’3 = s3 – Duc = 0
No
sC = s3
drainage
= Duc + s’3 = s3 – Duc = 0

Step 2: During application of axial load

s’1 = s3 + Dsd - Duc ± Dud
s3 + Dsd
No Duc ± Dud
drainage s3
= + s’3 = s3 - Duc ± Dud

Step 3: At failure
s3 + Dsf s’Vf = s3 + Dsf - Duc ± Dudf = s’1f

No
s3 =
drainage = Duc ± Dudf s’hf = s3 - Duc ± Dudf = s’3f
Shear strength parameters
o Three identical saturated soil samples are sheared to failure
in UU triaxial tests. Each sample is subjected to a different
cell pressure. No water can drain at any stage. At failure the
Mohr circles are found to be as shown.
Failure envelope, fu = 0
t

cu
s
s3a s3b s1a s3c s1b s1c
Dsf
o All tests for fully saturated clays, which are assumed to be at
the same void ratio (density) and water content, and
consequently they will have the same shear strength since
there is no CONSOLIDATION allowed.
Notes on UU TEST
o Drainage is not allowed both during the application of the
confining pressure s3 and during shearing.
o The test specimen is sheared to failure by the application of
deviator stress, Dsd, and drainage is prevented.
o Because of the application of chamber confining pressure s3,
the pore water pressure in the soil specimen will increase by uc.
o A further increase in the pore water pressure (ud) will occur
because of the deviator stress application.
o Usually Du is not measured in this test. This test is total stress
test. Analysis is in terms of s gives Cu and fu.
o The added axial stress at failure (Dsd)f is practically the same
regardless of the chamber confining pressure.
o All Mohr circles at failure will have the same diameter and the
Mohr failure envelope will be a horizontal straight line and
hence is called a f = 0 condition with t = su = cu = constant.
o tf = c = cu = su is called undrained shear strength and is equal to
the radius of the Mohr’s circle.
o The f =0 concept is applicable to only saturated clays and silts.
o Since drainage is not allowed at any stage the test can be
performed very quickly. So it is called Quick test or just Q-test.
(10-20 mins.)
o Typically, stress-strain curves for UU test are not different from
CU and CD stress-strain curves for the same soils.
o Intact specimens are required for this test, so it is conducted
usually on clay samples.
Effective and total stress Mohr circles
o If Du is measured, although it is not measured in this test,
then the effective stresses can be estimated and Mohr circle
for that is drawn.

o The deviator stress (sd)f to cause failure is the same as long

as the soil is fully saturated and fully undrained during both
stages of the test.
o The total and effective Mohr circles are displaced horizontally
by the pore pressure, u.
 Effective stress
Mohr’s circle at
failure

o The different total stress Mohr circles with a single effective

stress Mohr circle indicate that the pore pressure is different for
each sample.
o As discussed previously increasing the cell pressure without
allowing drainage has the effect of increasing the pore pressure
by the same amount (Du = Dsc) with no change in effective
stress.
o The change in pore pressure during shearing is a function of the
initial effective stress and the moisture content. As these are
identical for the three samples an identical strength is obtained.
Why does Dsf is the same for all specimens?
o There is only ONE UU effective stress Mohr Circle at failure, no matter what
the confining pressure. But why this is the case?

Specimen I: at Failure
s’1 = s3 + Dsd – uc - Dudf
s3 + Dsdf uc + Dudf
No
drainage s3
= + s’3 = s3 - uc - Dudf

For fully saturated clays, B = 1 (hence, uc = s3)

Specimen II: at Failure

s’1 = s3 + Ds3+ Dsd – uc – Duc - Dudf

s3 + Ds3+ Dsd uc + Duc+ Dud

No
drainage s3
= + s’3 = s3 + Ds3 - uc - Duc - Dudf

Because the effective confining pressure is the same for Specimen I and II.
Example
In an unconsolidated undrained triaxial test the undrained
strength is measured as 17.5 kPa. Determine the cell pressure
used in the test if the effective strength parameters are c’ = 0,
Φ’ = 26º and the pore pressure at failure is 43 kPa.
Analytical solution
Two Eqs.
Two
unknowns

Graphical solution
Remarks
o It is often found that a series of undrained tests from a particular site give a
value of fu that is not zero (Cu not constant). If this happens either:
• The samples are not saturated, or
• The samples have different moisture contents
o If the samples are not saturated analyses based on undrained behavior will
not be correct.
o The undrained strength Cu is not a fundamental soil property. If the
moisture content changes so will the undrained strength.

t S < 100% S > 100%

s3c s3b s1c s3a s1b s1a s

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope
Some practical applications of UU analysis for clays
o Like the CD and CU tests, the UU strength is applicable to certain critical
design situations in engineering practice.
o These situations are where the engineering loading is assumed to take
place so rapidly that there is no time for the induced pore water pressure
to dissipate or for consolidation to occur during the loading period.
o UU test simulates the short term condition in the field. Thus, Cu can be
used to analyze the short term behavior of soils
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

t = in situ undrained
t shear strength
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with no change in water content of
soft clay
t = Undrained shear
t strength of clay core

Core

3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

t = In situ undrained shear strength

 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane Test)
 Stress Path
Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)
o This a special class or type of UU test. In this test the
confining pressure s3 = 0.
o Axial load is rapidly applied and at failure s3 = 0 and the
value of s1 necessary to cause failure is called the Unconfined
Compression Strength qu.

Failure by shear Failure by Bulging

o Because the undrained shear strength is independent of the
confining pressure as long as the soil is fully saturated and
fully undrained, we have
=

o The difference in qu between

different tests will depend on
the level of compaction for
each sample.

o Since we said that in UU test strength is independent of s3,

theoretically the value of Cu obtained from unconfined
compression test or UU test must be the same. In practice,
however Cu from UC is slightly lower than that from UU test.
Notes
o The effective stress conditions at failure are identical for both
UU and UC tests. And if the effective stress conditions are
the same in both tests, then the strengths will be the same.
For this to be true the following assumptions must be
satisfied.
1. The specimen must be 100% saturated.
2. The specimen must be intact and contains no defects.
3. The soil must be very fine (clays)
4. The specimen must be sheared rapidly to failure.
Comments on Triaxial Tests
Three types of strength parameters (Consolidated-drained, consolidated-
undrained, and unconsolidated undrained) were introduced. There use
depends on drainage conditions.
Determination of P.W.P. During Undrained Loadings
o In CE 382 we learned how to determine u for the case of
hydrostatic loading and steady state seepage.
o In the preceding Chapter we learned how to evaluate u in
the case of consolidation (i.e. drained loading).
o It is often necessary in engineering practice to be able to
estimate just how much excess pore water pressure
develops in undrained loading due to a given set of stress
changes.
o Consider what happens when we apply the hydrostatic cell
pressure sc and prevent any drainage from occurring.
• If the soil is 100% saturated, then we obtain a change
in pore pressure Du, numerically equal to the change
in cell pressure Dsc we just applied. In other words ,
the ratio Du/ Dsc equals 1.
After application of cell
pressure Shear At failure

For the case of full saturation B =1

u = s3 + A(s1 – s3)
Let us consider the case of UU test (we have p.w.p. all along the test)

Step 1: Immediately after sampling Assuming S =100%

0

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

s C = s3
No
drainage sC = s3 Duc Duc = B Ds3

Increase of
Increase of pwp due to cell pressure
increase of cell pressure

Skempton’s pore water

pressure parameter, B
Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, Duc = Ds3)
Step 3: During application of axial load

s3 + Dsd
No
drainage s3

Duc ± Dud
Dud = Dsd

Increase of
Increase of pwp due to deviator stress
increase of deviator stress

Skempton’s pore water

,pressure parameter
 Combining steps 2 and 3,

Duc = B Ds3 Dud = Dsd

Total pore water pressure increment at any stage, Du
Du = Duc + Dud
Du = B Ds3 + Dsd
Du = B Ds3 + (Ds1 – Ds3) (∗)
Eq. (*) can also be expressed as

∆ 𝒖= 𝑩 [ ∆ 𝝈 𝟑 + 𝑨 ( ∆ 𝝈 𝟏 − ∆ 𝝈𝟑 ) ] …(∗ ∗) Where
o This is the well-known Skempton pore water pressure equation for
relating the induced pore pressure to the changes in total stress in
undrained loading.
o For saturated soils B =1 and Eq. (**) becomes

∆ 𝒖=∆ 𝝈 𝟑 + 𝑨( ∆ 𝝈 𝟏 − ∆ 𝝈𝟑 )… (∗∗ ∗)
Notes on P.W.P. parameters
o The pore pressure parameter B expresses the increase in pore water
pressure in undrained loading due to the increase in hydrostatic or cell
pressure.
o If the soil were less than 100% saturated, then the ratio of the induced
Du to the increase in cell pressure Dsc would be less than 1.
o The parameter B is very useful in the triaxial testing to determine if the
test specimen is saturated.
o The Skempton’s pore water pressure parameter “A” is a measure of how
much pore pressure will change during shear phase.
o Like the parameter B, the parameter A also is not constant. It is very
dependent on, OCR, anisotropy, sample disturbance.
o The parameter A can be calculated for the stress conditions at any strain
up to failure, as well as at failure.
o The Skempton pore pressure coefficients are most useful in engineering
practice since they enable us to predict the induced pore pressure if we
know or can estimate the change in the total stresses. Typical examples
are in the design and construction of highway embankments and
compacted earthfill dams.
 B Af

Degree of saturation OCR

The general range of values in most clay soils is as follows:

• Normally consolidated clays: 0.5 to 1
• Overconsolidated clays: - 0.5 to 0
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane Test)
 Stress Path
Vane Shear Test
o There are other techniques besides UU and UC tests from which Cu can
be found.
o One of the most versatile and widely used devices used for investigating
undrained shear strength (Cu) is the VST.
Applied
Torque, T Rupture
Disturbed
surface
soil
Bore hole
(diameter = DB)

h > 3DB)
Vane
T
H Vane

PLAN VIEW

Rate of rotation : 60 – 120 per minute

Test can be conducted at 0.5 m vertical
D intervals
o Since the test is very fast, Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) can be
expected.
o If T is the maximum torque applied at the head of the torque rod to
cause failure, it should be equal to the sum of the resisting moment of
the shear force along the side surface of the soil cylinder (Ms) and the
resisting moment of the shear force at each end (Me).

T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Ms – Shaft shear resistance along
the circumference Cu h
d d 2h
M s  dhCu  Cu
2 2
Me depends on the assumed distribution of shear strength Cu
mobilization at the ends of the soil cylinder.

Cu Cu Cu

d/2 d/2 d/2 d/2 d/2 d/2

o In general, the torque, T, at failure can be expressed as
T b = 1/2 for triangular distribution
Cu 
 d 2h d3  b = 2/3 for uniform distribution
    b = 3/5 for parabolic distribution
 2 4 

Remarks
o The undrained shear strength obtained from a vane shear test also
depends on the rate of application of torque T.
o Bjerrum (1974) has shown that as the plasticity of soils increases, Cu
obtained by vane shear tests may give unsafe results for foundation
design. Therefore, he proposed the following correction.

Cu(design) = lCu(vane shear)

Where, l = correction factor = 1.7 – 0.54 log (PI)
PI = Plasticity Index
o Vane shear tests can be conducted in the laboratory and in the field
during soil exploration.
o In the field, where considerable variation in the undrained shear strength
can be found with depth, vane shear tests are extremely useful.
 Topics

 Introduction
 Basic Principles
 Components of Shear Strength of Soils
 Normal and Shear Stresses on a plane
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Laboratory Shear Strength Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
 Field Testing (Vane Test)
 Stress Path
Stress Path
o As we learned in the first part of this chapter, states of stress at a point in
equilibrium can be represented by a Mohr circle in a t-s coordinate
system.
o Sometimes it is convenient to represent that state of stress by a stress
point, which has the coordinates

t
Stress point

𝝈𝟏− 𝝈𝟑
𝟐

s3 𝝈 𝟏+ 𝝈 𝟑 s1 s
𝟐
o We often want to show successive states of stress which a test specimen
or a typical element in the field undergoes during loading or unloading.
o A simple case to illustrates stress paths is the common triaxial test in
which s3 remain fixed as we increase s1.
This plane of maximum shear
t q
s1 increasing

45o

s3 s p

o There might be a confusion, especially if the stress path were complicated.

Therefore it is simpler to show only the locus of the stress points.
o This locus is called the stress path, and it is plotted on what is we call a p-q
diagram.
o A stress path is therefore a line that connects a series of points, each
of which represents a successive stress state experienced by a soil
specimen during the progress of a test.
o Both p and q could be defined either in terms of total stresses or effective
stresses
 A modified failure The straight line ID is referred to as
.envelope (Kf line) the stress path in a q-p plot for a
consolidated-drained triaxial test.

Mohr’s circle
at failure

Mohr Coulomb failure envelope in terms of stress invariants

EXAMPLE
A normally consolidated clay was consolidated under a stress of 150
kPa, then sheared undrained in axial compression. The principal stress
difference at failure was 100 kPa, and the induced pore water pressure
at failure was 88 kPa. The strain, deviatoric stress, and pore water
pressure recorded during the test are listed in the Table below.

Draw the total and effective stress paths for this test and determine the
Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters.
 ∆ 𝝈 𝒅=𝝈 𝟏 − 𝝈 𝟑 =q 𝜎 ′3 = 𝝈 𝟏 + 𝝈𝟑 =
= 𝒑=
e Du 𝟐
0.25 49 35 24.5 115 199 164 174.5 139.5
0.5 73 57 36.5 93 223 166 186.5 129.5
0.75 86 72 43 78 236 164 193 121
1 94 79.5 47 70.5 244 164.5 197 117.5
1.25 100 88 50 62 250 162 200 112
1.5 96 92 48 58 246 154 198 106
2 89 99 44.5 51 239 140 194.5 95.5

100

q (kPa)
80
a’ = 24.8o F’’ = 27.5o
60

40
a =14.6o
f = 15.1o
20

0 50 10 0 1 50 2 00 25 0
p, p’ (kPa)
 Question#3 (1st Midterm, Fall 36-37)
A direct shear test was conducted on a specimen of dry sand (C = 0) with a normal
stress of 190 kN/m2. Failure occurred at a shear stress of 120 kN/m 2. The size of the
sample tested was 50 mm X 50 mm X 25 mm (height). Determine:-
a. The angle of friction for the sand.
b. The principal stresses at failure.
c. The orientation of the plane of the maximum shear stress at failure .

Solution t
tan f’ = 120/190 200
Hence f =32.3
’ o f =32.3o

From point F draw 150 qtmax =14o

F POLE
normal to the M-C
Envelope. It intersects 100
s-axis at point C
defining the center of 50
Mohr circle. Draw Mohr
C
circle such that its
center is at point C and
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 s
is tangent to the M-C
envelope at point F. Get
s1 and s3. s1 =380 kPa
s3 =125kPa
Solution
s1 = Dsd + s3 = (s1 – s3 ) + 150
s’ 3 = s3 - Du = 150 - Du

s’1 - s’ 3 = s1 – s3

s’1 = (s1 – s3) + s’ 3 = (s1 – s3) + 150 - Du Values are listed in the table

q = (s1 – s3)/2
p’ = (s’1 + s’ 3)/2
Example 4
Given the stress shown on the element
across. Required:
a. Evaluate sa and ta when a = 30o .
b.Evaluate s1 and s3.
c. Determine the orientation of the major
and minor principal planes.
d.Determine the maximum shear stress and
the orientation of the plane on which it
acts.
Triaxial Shear Test Device
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total, s = Neutral, u + ’Effective, s
HK Fig. 11.38 . It is too
Step 1: Immediately after sampling messy so I do not use it .
0 Instead simpler one s’V0 = ur
0 ur - s’h0 = ur

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure s’VC = sC + ur - sC = ur

sC -ur + Duc = -ur + sc
s’h = ur
No sC
drainage (Sr = 100% ; B = 1)

Step 3: During application of axial load

sC + Ds s’V = sC + Ds + ur - sc Du

No sC ur + sc ± Du- s’h = sC + ur - sc Du

drainage

Step 3: At failure
s’Vf = sC + Dsf + ur - sc Duf = s’1f
sC + Dsf
ur + sc ± Duf-
s’hf = sC + ur - sc Duf
sC
No = s’3f
drainage
Unconsolidated Compression Test (UC Test)

Total, s
= Neutral, u
+ Effective,
s’
Step 1: Immediately after sampling s’V0 = ur
0
0
s’h0 = ur

- ur

Step 2: During application of axial load

sC s’VC = sC + ur - sC = ur
No
drainage sC
-ur + Duc = -ur + sc s’h = ur
(Sr = 100% ; B = 1)

Step 3: During application of axial load s’V = sC + Ds + ur - sc Du

sC + Ds
No
drainage sC -ur + sc ± Du s’h = sC + ur - sc Du
s’Vf = sC + Dsf + ur - sc Duf = s’1f
Step 3: At failure
sC + Dsf
No -ur + sc ± Duf
s’hf = sC + ur - sc Du = s’
f 3f
drainage sC