CHAPTER

11
ALIMENTARY
 ALIMENTARY CANAL VS DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• ALIMENTARY CANAL
(GUT)
• A tubular passage from the
mouth to anus (± 9m)
• Conveys, digests and absorbs
food
d
• Eliminates undigested food
ALIMENTARY CANAL VS DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• All the alimentary canal organs pharynx
and other associated organs (32
teeth, 6 salivary glands, liver, gal
bladder & pancreas)

d
IMPORTANT TERMS
• INGESTION
Taking in food nutrients – into alimentary canal through mouth (mouth/buccal cavity)

• DIGESTION
Breakdown of large complex insoluble nutrients into small simple soluble molecules to be
absorbed

• ABSORPTION
Process of soluble molecules passing through the walls of the gut into the bloodstream

• ASSIMILATION
Soluble molecules are taken from capillaries into body cells for usage (absorption and digestion of)

• EGESTION
Elimination/passing out undigested food as waste (faeces) through the anus
 Absorption
Ingestion Digestion
Egestion

Food
Digestion
Absorption
STR
UCT
URE
pharynx

S OF
THE
DIG
ESTI
VE
SYST
EM
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• MOUTH & MOUTH CAVITY (BUCCAL
CAVITY)
Mouth = anterior opening of alimentary canal
Bound by 2 lips
Contains tongue, teeth, duct openings of salivary
glands
Responsible for chewing of food = mastication
(mechanical digestion)
Increase surface area for enzyme activity
Mix food with saliva
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• MOUTH & MOUTH CAVITY (BUCCAL
CAVITY)
6 salivary glands produce saliva with water and
mucus
Soften, moisten, lubricate
Saliva contains enzyme amylase, hydrolyses starch into
maltose (chemical digestion)
Food in mouth for few seconds (least digestion)
Chewed food rolled into ball = bolus by tongue
TEETH
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• PHARYNX
Region at the back of the mouth cavity,
where wind pipe from nose crosses
oesophagus

Between mouth cavity and oesophagus

Tongue pushes bolus into pharynx

Contracts to push through into

oesophagus
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

• EPIGLOTTIS
Flap which closes trachea
when swallowing

Food passes into oesophagus

and not windpipe
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• OESOPHAGUS
Starts in pharynx, opens into stomach

Muscular tube = peristalsis for movement of food

Sphincter muscle (cardiac sphincter) at the end of

oesophagus, stops food from going back into oesophagus

No digestion occurs (food only here for a few seconds)

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• STOMACH
Just below the diaphragm

Enlarged bag-like organ

Between oesophagus and duodenum

2 sphincter muscles:
Between oesophagus and stomach = cardiac
sphincter
Between stomach and duodenum = pyloric
sphincter

When food & liquids enter the stomach

wall expands to ± 1 liter
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• STOMACH
Circular muscles cause wavelike
contractions to churn and mix food with
gastric juice (gastric glands)  HCl

Forms chyme (semi-liquid)

Some absorption occurs

o water, glucose, alcohol, minerals

HCl breaks down sucrose into glucose &

fructose

HCl is antiseptic
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• SMALL INTESTINE
o DUODENUM

Between stomach & ileum

Chyme from stomach passes into duodenum

Most digestion is completed here

Intestinal glands in wall releases intestinal juice

• Contains enzymes maltase lipase & sucrase

Brunner’s glands produce mucus-rich alkaline secretion

(contains sodium carbonate ions)
• Protect duodenum from acid (chyme)
• Provides alkaline conditions to activate intestinal enzymes
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• SMALL INTESTINE
o ILEUM (±6 m)

Between duodenum and caecum

Digestion ended in duodenum & products move to ileum = chyle

o Mix of small soluble molecules  AA, FA, glycerol, glucose, fructose,
vitamins & minerals.

AA, glucose, fructose, water soluble vitamins & minerals are

absorbed into bloodstream
o Through villi in intestinal wall

FA, glycerol & fat soluble vitamins are absorbed into lacteals
o In the villi in intestinal wall

Has ridges, folds & villi to increase surface area for absorption
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• LARGE INTESTINE
Last part of alimentary canal

Consists out of:

o Caecum
o Appendix
o Colon
o Rectum
o Anus

Receives indigestible materials

o Plant fibres, cellulose, bacteria, dead cells, mucus,
water, bile salts & some vit. and minerals.

36 hours in colon

o Most of H2O, minerals and vitamins K & B are absorbed
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• LARGE INTESTINE
±1.5 L water arrives in colon daily
• Main function = absorption of water

Colon compacts indigestible residue into semi-

solid faeces - sent to rectum

Rectum releases faeces through anus

(defecation) – anal sphincter muscle

Caecum = pouch like structure & receives chyle

Appendix = finger-like tube attached to caecum

• No proven function in humans
• Other mammals = enzyme to break down cellulose
CHOLERA
• Infectious disease

• Bacterium – Vibrio cholerae

• Contracted by:
―Eating contaminated food
―Drinking contaminated water
* Contaminated with faeces of a person with the bacteria

• Symptoms:
Vomiting
Severe watery diarrhea
Dehydration
Loss of salts
If untreated = death
CHOLERA
Process of how cholera bacteria cause cholera
• Cholera bacteria:
• is ingested  live & breed in small intestine
• Produce & release a toxin (poison) in small intestine
• Toxin causes epithelial cells of small intestine to secrete
chloride (salt) ions = into lumen of small intestines
• This causes more water to be released from epithelial
cells
• Water moves by means of osmosis into lumen of
intestines (high to low )
• Increase in water = watery faeces = diarrhea &
dehydration
• Enough & constant water intake = recovery
DIGESTION – ROLE OF ENZYMES
o Enzymes  catalysts = affects speed of chemical reactions

o Digestive enzymes found in the body:

– Salivary amylase  saliva  salivary glands

– Pepsin  stomach (juice)  cells lining stomach

– Pancreatic amylase, lipase, trypsin  pancreatic juice 

pancreatic exocrine glands
– Sucrase, maltase  intestinal juice  cells lining small
intestines.

o Enzyme’s optimum temperature in body = 37°C

  temperature = slower reactions
– Extremely  temperatures = enzymes denature
 DIGESTION – ROLE OF ENZYMES
o Enzymes have an optimum pH
o Different pH in different regions of alimentary canal
o Extreme pH changes = enzymes denature
Enzyme Substrate Product Region pH Secretion
salivary amylase starch maltose mouth 6.5 – 7.2 saliva
pepsin proteins polypeptides stomach 2.5 HCl (stomach juice)
pancreatic amylase starch maltose small intestine 8 pancreatic juice
lipase lipids FA’s & glycerol small intestine 8 pancreatic juice
trypsin polypeptides amino acids small intestine 8 pancreatic juice
glucose &
sucrase sucrose small intestine 8 intestinal juice
fructose
maltase maltose glucose small intestine 8 intestinal juice
pH & TEMPERTURE
TYPES OF DIGESTION
1. MECHANICAL DIGESTION
o Physically breaking the food into smaller pieces by chewing, churning,
chopping and smashing.
o Begins in the mouth (chewing)
o Stomach into smaller pieces (contractions & churning)
o Small intestine, muscles surrounding the intestinal walls contract to roll, mix
and chop the partially digested food = chyme is moved back and forth

o Mechanical digestion is important for chemical digestion because when food

is broken down into smaller particles by mechanical means, chemical
digestion will be more efficient
TYPES OF DIGESTION
2. CHEMICAL DIGESTION
o Breaking down large complex insoluble nutrients  simpler soluble nutrient molecules
o to be used by the cells

o Begins in the mouth  saliva

o Food in stomach = broken down chemically

o acids in stomach
o enzymes secreted by the stomach

o Enzymes from the pancreas further digest carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

o Most chemical digestion  duodenum (enzymes)

o No chemical digestion in the esophagus or large intestine

o Chemical digestion breaks large, in food into small, simple that can be taken in by cells.
TYPES OF DIGESTION

structure function type of digestion

teeth grind food mechanical digestion

mouth
amylase changes starch to maltose chemical digestion

acids allow pepsin to break down proteins chemical digestion

stomach
contractions smashed and squeezed food mechanical digestion

enzymes break down food nutrients chemical digestion

small intestine
food mixed, rolled, chopped and squeezed mechanical digestion
STARCH DIGESTION
o Salivary amylase digest (hydrolyse) insoluble starch  soluble maltose

o Digestion of starch to maltose is the first stage of starch digestion

o Further breakdown = small intestine

o remaining starch broken down by pancreatic amylase  maltose

o Maltase enzyme (wall of the small intestine) breaks down maltose  glucose
HCl IN GASTRIC JUICE
o Gastric juice = digestive fluid produced by gastric glands (lining of the stomach)

o The gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid (HCl)

o Food entering the stomach mixes with gastric juice

o Hydrochloric acid:
o kills bacteria (antiseptic)
o creates acid conditions (low pH 2 -3)
o activates inactive pepsinogen (chief cells) into enzyme pepsin = begin protein
digestion: proteins  polypeptides

o Goblet cells in the stomach produce mucus = forms a physical barrier  prevent
gastric acid from damaging the stomach
ROLE OF BILE
o Dark green to yellowish brown fluid
o Alkaline solution produced by the liver and stored in
the gall bladder
o Used after food has left the stomach and entered the
duodenum.
o Bile enters the duodenum through the bile duct
o In cases where the gall bladder has been removed by
surgery, the liver continues to manufacture bile.
 ROLE OF BILE IN DIGESTION
1. NEUTRALISING ACIDS:
o Bile is alkaline

o Helps to neutralise stomach acids

o Reduces acidity of chyme

o Food coming from the stomach has to be made alkaline to create optimum
conditions for the pancreatic enzymes e.g. lipase, trypsin and amylase to on act on
it

o Pancreas further produces large amounts  bicarbonate –

secretes it through pancreatic duct into duodenum
= completely neutralises any gastric acid that wasn’t
neutralised by bile
ROLE OF BILE IN DIGESTION
2. FAT EMULSIFICATION:
o In the duodenum food is mixed with bile which causes emulsification of fats
o Emulsification  breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets
Importance:
 increases the surface area so that lipase enzyme can easily act upon it
 Digestion can take place faster (speeds up digestion)
o Fats must be broken down by lipase
into fatty acids and glycerol to pass through
the walls of the intestine into the bloodstream
and utilised by the body
o Without emulsification = pass through the
body undigested
STRUCTURE OF A VILLUS
• Fingerlike projections
• 0.5 – 1.6 mm long
• To increase surface area
• Constantly moving (brings nutrients in
contact)
• Surrounded by single layer of epithelial
cells
• Minimizes distance for nutrients to
travel
• Contains a lot of mitochondria (active
transport)
STRUCTURE OF A VILLUS Epithelial cells

• Single central lacteal (lymph vessel) Lacteal

• Absorption of fats (FA’s &

glycerol) and fat soluble vitamins
• Dense network of capillaries
• Absorption of glucose, AA &
water soluble vitamins and Capillary
network
minerals
• Each epithelial cell has micro-villi
(brush border)
• Further increases surface area Veins
• Goblet cells between epithelial cells Part of
lymphatic
• Secretes mucus to keep gut moist system
STRUCTURE OF A VILLUS
ABSORPTION  SMALL INTESTINE
o SIGNIFICANCE OF VILLI:
 Increase the absorption of nutrients from food passing through the small intestine

 Each villus is approximately 0.5 - 1.6 mm in length

 greatly increase the surface area = increase the absorption of nutrients.
 each mm has 40 villi = 5 million in the ileum

 Each villus  many microvilli projecting from its epithelium = brush border  increase the
surface area even further = increase the absorption of nutrients

 Compared to an intestine with no villi

 30 to 600 times higher

 Increased absorptive area - nutrients (including glucose, fructose, amino acids, vitamins and
minerals) pass into the villi through diffusion, which is effective only at short distances
HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN
• Major blood vessel in abdomen
• All capillaries and venules join together = hepatic portal
vein
• Conveys blood to the liver
• From the spleen, stomach, pancreas and intestines
• All nutrients (glucose, AA, vitamins, water & minerals) taken
up by stomach and villi  hepatic portal vein  liver
• Liver filters blood
• Removes toxins – detoxification
• Liver processes nutrients
• Glucose  glycogen (stored)
• Vit. A & D and iron  stored
• Excess AA  deaminated
• FA’s & glycerol  lymphatic system  bloodstream (not
through liver)
LIVER  GLUCOSE METABOLISM
•Normal blood glucose concentration
o 90 – 100 mg glucose / 100 cm3 of blood (0.1%).

• Blood glucose (sugar)  kept within fairly narrow limits

• Glucose from food is variable

•HIGH GLUCOSE LEVELS:

• Beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas

 insulin into the bloodstream
• Bloodstream transports insulin to liver
• Insulin stimulates liver cells = convert excess glucose into
glycogen or fat
• Glycogen = stored in liver and muscles - fat as adipose tissue
(under the skin or around organs)
LIVER  GLUCOSE METABOLISM
• LOW GLUCOSE LEVELS:
• Alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans
in the pancreas  glucagon into the
bloodstream
• Bloodstream transports glucagon to
liver
• Glucagon stimulates liver cells to
convert glycogen into glucose
• Blood glucose levels rises
LIVER  AMINO ACID BREAKDOWN
• Proteins ingested  hydrolysed  amino acids  absorbed 
blood capillaries of the villi
• All capillaries = hepatic portal vein
• Amino acids is taken to the liver
• Some amino acids (about 60 g) is carried in the blood to other cells
• Excess amino acids must be dealt with by the liver
• Amino acids cannot be stored
• So it is converted into other molecules that can be stored or use
as energy sources = deamination
GENERAL AMINO ACID STRUCTURE

AMINO GROUP CARBOXYLIC GROUP

(NITROGEN (ACID CONTAINING)
CONTAINING)
LIVER  DEAMINATION OF AA
• Takes place in the liver:
• Amino group (nitrogen part) is
removed = deamination
• Forms ammonia – poisonous
• Immediately converted to harmless
urea [CO(NH2)2]
• Combines ammonia with CO2
• Rest of amino acids converted to fats or
carbohydrates
• Energy (glucose)
• Storage (glycogen)
FAT AS STORAGE
• Storage substance for the body’s extra kilojoules
• Energy source
• Body used up the calories from carbohydrates
(after first 20 minutes of exercise) it begins to
utilise the kilojoules from fat
• Fats are metabolised to release greater amount of
energy than other sources like carbohydrates and
proteins
• Storage substance = fills the fat cells in adipose
tissue (subcutaneous fat) underneath the skin =
insulation
 Carbohydrates

saccharide
monosaccharide
monomer