LEADING FACTORS OF MUSLIM SEPARATISM

Seeds of Hindu-Muslim Nationalism

Political Struggle-I (1857-1916)

The struggle of the Muslims of the sub-continent for recognition as a

separate nation, leading to the establishment of Pakistan, has under gone
many phases. Since the advent of Islam in India, Muslims found
themselves in a different predicament. Islam made rapid strides and soon
went on winning an increasing number of converts. The gulf between two
communities continued to widen. In the mean time British established
their supremacy in the commerce and in this way, paved way for their
political domination.
The struggle of Muslims in this direction was on two fronts. Against
British Imperialism and against the rising desire of militant Hinduism to
establish for them selves Hindu domination over Muslims under the cover
of majority rule. Superiority in number along with the help of British on
social, economic and political grounds enabled Hindus to hold a
dominating place in all walks of life over Muslims. It was the period when
some of the Muslims thinkers and political leaders who were gifted with
foresight saw that Muslims would never live a life of dignity and self
respect in United India under the British democracy.
 The first Muslim who visualised the ultimate division of India was
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Aligarh Movement was the foundation stone
for the organized political struggle in India. After Aligarh Movement
many events shaped the course of history towards partition. We will
started from the foundation of Indian National Congress and then
proceed towards the Pakistan Movement.
 POLITICAL MOVEMENTS

The Indian National Congress.

Hindu Nationalism in an organized form began with the birth of the

Indian National Congress in 1885. Apparently this body was formed
with the mission statement of combining all elements of India into one
National Whole. Indian National Congress claimed to be the
representative of all the majority and minority communities of India.
However Muslim opposed Indian National Congress.
 ATTITUDE OF MUSLIMS TOWARDS CONGRESS

Initially Congress appeared as a National body representing all Indian but

gradually it became a Hindu body. Though some Muslim leaders joined the
Congress, but between the years 1885 to 1896, the Congress had elected two
Muslims as president, Baduruddin Tyab, in 1887 and R.M Sayani in 1896, the
object being to boost the recruitment of Muslim into the ranks of that
organization. This set Sir Syed Ahmad Khan thinking and he organized a
political party known as “Mushtarka Jamait-e-Hind”, and in connection wit this
party he wrote in 1888 to General Graham, “The aim of this party is to oppose
the political ideals and activities of the Congress”. In 1896, when R.M Sayani
was to preside over the annual session of congress in Calcutta, Sir Syed
inaugurated almost at the same time in the same city the Muslim Educational
congress in order to prevent Muslims from joining the Congress. So the
Muslims as a community kept aloof from it.
 RISE OF MUSLIM POLITICS

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was of opinion that the Muslims of India had to
work out their own solution, otherwise there will be the disguised rule of
the majority Hindu party. There was chain of events that led to demand
separate electorates by Muslims. All these events led the Muslim leaders
to think that the Hindu congress would not look to the interests of the
Muslims. They began to feel the necessity of a separate election for the
protection of the Muslims rights.

Sir Syed turned away from the idea of cooperation between the Hindus
and the Muslims for the common objectives. He was a sincere believer in
friendship between two communities but the intolerant attitude of the
Hindus made him realise that the Muslim should not join the Congress.
Anti-Cow killing Agitation by Hindus:

In 1893, there occurred serious communal riots in Bombay. B.G.Tilak a

militant Hindu unfurled the banner of Hindu extremism by organising an
anti cow killing agitation on all India basis. This was regarded as a direct
provocation to the Muhammadans. Facing this anti Muslim campaign the
Muslims grew apprehensive and quickly formed the Muhammadan
Defence Association in December, 1893. Its aim was to prevent and also
to communicate with the authorities with the views of the Indian Muslims.
Hindi-Urdu-Controversy:

The Hindi-Urdu controversy that began in 1867 in Benaras became one of

the major factor in determining Muslims attitude to wards the rapidly
changing socio-political conditions in the country. In August 1900,
Muslims established “Urdu Defence Association College” in Lucknow
with Mohsin-ul-Malik (secretary of the Aligarh College) as president of the
association. Hindi-Urdu controversy realised the Muslims to develop their
organised representative political organisation.
Partition of Bengal:

The Bengal was huge province with 78 million population, it was largest
province in sub-continent. The communication was too difficult, there were
many social and law and order problems. Lord Curzon became the viceroy
in 1899. He go to conclusion for solution of the problems that division of
Bengal is necessary. Finally the Bengal province partitioned on 16 October,
1905 which consisted of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa and formed a new
province known as Eastern Bengal with the division of Dacca, Rajshahi,
Chittagong along with Assam. The Muslims generally felt satisfied at the
creation of Muslim majority province as it offered the better opportunities
for progress.
The Hindus reacted to ward the partition of in a hostile and violent manner.
The Hindus could never support a move which was to bring prosperity and
happiness to the Muslims. Hindu of Bengal could not tolerate the partition
of Bengal and they led a serious movement against it. Surendra Nath
Banerjee, Bipin Chandra Paul, Aswini Kumar Datta and other leaders of
Bengal took the lead of this movement. This agitation against the partition
soon took the form of communal movement. At last the British government
were pressurised and take the decision back. The partition of Bengal was
annulled on 12 December, 1911. With these movements Muslims became
clear that Indian National Congress is nothing but an anti-partition
movement.
Simla Deputation:

The Hindu agitation against the partition of Bengal and the rise to militant
Hindu movements made the Muslims realise the need for a Muslim political
organisation and they also demanded special safeguards for the protection of
their rights under the proposed constitutional reforms. The Muslims
experiencing Hindu attitude during anti partition agitation in Bengal became
crystal clear about Hindu mentality. In order to safeguard their interests, the
Muslims drew up a plan of separate electorates for their community and
presented it to the Viceroy, Lord Minto on 1st October 1906, by Muslim
deputation. The deputation consisting of 35 prominent Muslim leaders led
by the Aga Khan.
FORMATION OF ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE:

The attitude of Hindus to wards the partition of Bengal had opened

the eyes of those Muslim leaders who had a soft corner for Indian
National Congress. It compelled the Muslims to organize
themselves to safeguard their rights. Being encouraged by the
success of the Muslim deputation at Simla, some of the leaders
started trying to establish a political organisation for the Muslims.
A series of events took place at the beginning of the 20th century made it
clear to them that they must have a separate political organisation of their
own. At last it was decided that a representative organisation would be
formed. Where upon the leaders of the Muslim India met at the annual
meeting of Muhammadan Educational Conference on December 30, 1906
at shahbagh, Dacca under the presidency of Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk. The
Muslim leaders from all over the country attended the meeting. Sir
Salimullah Khan Nawab of Dacca presented a resolution for formation of
Political Party to safeguard the interests of the Muslims, the resolution
supported by Hakim Ajmal Khan, Moulana Muhammad Ali Johar and
Moulana Zafar Ali Khan.
All India Muslim League was formed. Head quarter of All India
Muslim League was established in Lucknow, and Sir Aga Khan
was elected as its first president. Moulana Muhammad Ali Johar
wrote the constitution of League known as “Green Book”.
Branches were set up in other provinces. Syed Ameer Ali
established the branch of Muslim League in London in 1908.
 ATTEMPTS FOR HINDU MUSLIM UNITY
Political Struggle-II (1916-1930)

Lucknow Pact.

The Indian politics took a new turn with change in Muslim League’s
political creed. The Quaid-I-Azam’s inclusion in the Muslim League was a
historic event which gave new dimensions to Muslim League’s political
struggle. The Muslim League has already demanded self-rule for India which
brought the Muslim League and the Congress closer to each other to bring the
government around to accept the demands. The purpose could be achieved,
they agreed, if the two major communities of India forget their differences on
petty issues and come closer to each other to see eye to eye on important
national issues.
 In December, 1916 the Muslim League and Congress for the first time in
the history of India, held their joint session in Lucknow. The scheme for
constitutional reforms prepared by the reforms committee of Congress and
Muslim League was placed before the joint session for approval. Finally the
scheme was approved and an agreement on the scheme of constitutional
reforms was reached between Congress and Muslim League known as
‘Lucknow Pact’ or Congress League Scheme. The credit for creating this
harmonious situation undoubtedly went to the unflinching and untiring
efforts of the Quaid-i-Azam who was conferred with a proud tittle of
‘Ambassador of Hindu Muslim Unity’ by the famous poet politician Mrs.
Sarojni Naidu.
The Congress League Scheme of 1916 is a mile stone in the
history of Muslim struggle for self-rule in India. In this scheme
the Hindus agreed to separate electorates, it in fact agreed to
consider the Muslims as a separate Nation; they thus accepted
the concept of the Two-Nation Theory.
Khilafat Movement:

Hindu-Muslim unity reached its climax during the Khilafat and

the Non-cooperation Movements. The Muslims under the leader
ship of the Ali brothers, Moulana Muhammad Ali and Moulana
Shoukat Ali launched the historic Khilafat Movement (1919-
1924) after the First World War to protect the Ottaman Empire
from dismemberment. M.K.Gandhi linked the issue of self-
government with the Khilafat issue to associate the Hindus with
the Movement.
 
After the decline of Mughal Empire in Sub-continent, the Ottoman Empire
was considered as a sacred institution for the Muslims of India. The
Muslims of India had close affinity with Turkey on religious ground. When
the World War-I (1914-1918) broke out in Europe, Turkey joined the war in
favour of Germany (the main enemy of Great Britain). The alliance between
Turkey and Germany put the Indian Muslim in an awkward position. The
government of India wished that the Muslim scholars of India should issue
a fatwa to the effect that sympathy with Turkey was unlawful from Islamic
point of view, they at the outbreak of war, pledged their whole hearted
support to the British government and this came into clash with their
brotherly feelings to wards the fellow Muslims in turkey.
The British government realised that ‘ War between Britain and
Turkey placed a great strain upon the loyalty of the Indian Muslims
and being suspicious of their leaders’ put Moulana Muhammad Ali,
Moulana Shoukat Ali, Moulana Abdul Kalam Azad and other
prominent leaders to jail. At this the Muslims became much offended.
The British government promised that the feelings of Indian shall be
given due consideration.
The Muslims of India decided to launch a movement for the safeguard of
the institution of caliphate. In 1919, Indian Muslims in the absence of Ali
brothers formed a body to protect the status of Turkey and khilafat;
commonly known as All India Khilafat Committee. The Ali brothers and
Moulana Abdul Kalam Azad when came out from jail organized the
committee. The first khilafat day was observed on 17th October 1919 and
with which well known Khilafat Movement started.

The main objectives of movement were:

1. To maintain the Turkish Caliphate.

2. To protect the holy places of the Muslims
3. To maintain the unity of Ottoman Empire.
The first Khilafat Conference was held at Delhi on 23rd November, 1919, passed
the resolution asked the Muslims as a religious duty,
to abstain from participating in victory celebration,
to boycott British goods, to non-cooperate with the government and to send a
delegation to Britain to acquaint the British government with the Muslim
feelings.
The second khilafat conference was held at Amritsar in December, 1919, it was
decided that the khilafat committee should send a deputation to England to
persuade the government to refrain from injuring the Muslim sentiments. The
third conference held at Bombay in February, 1920, endorsed the decision taken
at Amritsar. Accordingly, in March, 1920, an Indian Khilafat Deputation,
including Syed Mahmud, Muhammad Ali Mir, Sulaiman Nadvi, H.M.Hayat
under the leadership of Moulana Muhammad Ali Johar, visited England to put
their views before the British government, but Mr. Lioyd George Prime Minister
of Bertain gave them cold reception.
During the conference of central khilafat committee in May, 1920 at Delhi
which was also attended by many Hindus and Sikhs in an alliance of
khilafat Movement under the leadership of M.K.Gandhi had moved Non-
cooperation resolution, for restoration of Khilafat, including,

1. Surrender of all British tittles.

2. Refusal to attend any government function.
3. Withdrawal of all students from schools and colleges.
4. Boycott of the British Law Courts by lawyers.
5. No participation in coming election.
Gandhi and Ali brothers toured the country and explained the meaning
and significance of the movement. The Non-cooperation movement
could not remain peaceful. The Muslim slaughtered few British officials
and their Hindu neighbours. In an other incident an excited mob set fire
to a police station at chauri choura village, in U.P on 5th February, 1922
where about 22 police man were burnt alive. Already large number of
leaders was under arrest, so before himself going to jail M.K.Gandhi
unexpectedly called off the Non-cooperation movement. The end of
non-cooperation also brought about the end of Khilafat Movement.
As a result leaderless Khilafat Movement could not go ahead. Jinnah
was already of the view that Gandhi was leading them to wrong path.
How ever, Muslim received an other shock, the Institution of caliphate
for which the Muslims had struggled so sincerely, was abolished not by
the enemies but by a Muslim hero, Mustafa Kamal Pasha commonly
known as Ataturk, who established a Nationalist Government in
Turkey. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey under the leadership
Kamal Ataturk, abolished the Institution of Caliphate and last Khalifa
Sultan Abdul Majeed was banished from Turkey in 1924.
Khilafat Movement, no doubt, failed but it was of considerable importance in the
history of Muslims of India. It served the important purpose of mass awakening of the
Muslims. Its failure led them to believe that the Muslims, if they wanted to survive in
the sub-continent, must rely upon their own strength. This Movement later gave an
impetus to the struggle for independent and for separate home land for the Muslims.
 

The Khilafat Movement ended without achieving its goal. The Indian
politics had entered into a new era and was presenting a shabby scene.
The Hindu-Muslim unity and brotherhood were the thing of the past and
the people, once again, were moving within their traditional narrow-
mindedness. Some leaders had started movements (shuddi and sanghtan)
for converting the Muslims to Hinduism which provided a new cause of
bitterness.
Simon Commission:

The chance of Hindu-Muslim unity came again in November, 1927 when

the British Government appointed a statutory commission under the
chairmanship of Sir Johan Simon after which the commission known as
the Simon Commission (1927). The object of the commission was to
review the working Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919 and to make
recommendations for new constitution for India.
The commission had no Indian member, the Congress and Muslim
League decided to boycott the commission. The Simon
Commission visited India twice first from February to March 1928
and again from October 1928 to April 1929. The people received
the commission with the slogans, ‘Simon go back, Simon go
back’. Simon report was finally published in May 1930.
The congress and Muslim League both refused to accept the
recommendations made by Simon Commission. The
Congress had started ‘Civil Disobedience Movement’ in
April, 1930 before one month of the report’s publication.
 
 
NEHRU REPORT:

After the failure of Simon Commission there were no alternative for

the British but to ask the local people to frame a constitution for
themselves. They knew that the Congress and Muslim League were
the two main parties and that they both had serious differences of
opinions. Lord Birkenhead, secretary of state for Indian affairs, threw
the Bill in the Indian politician’s court, and asked them to draw a
draft of the forth coming act on which both Hindus and Muslims
could agree.
The Indian National Congress accepted this challenge and called meeting
of the All Parties conference, at Delhi in January, 1928. More than a
hundred delegates of almost all the parties of the sub-continent
assembled and participated in the conference. Unfortunately, the leaders
were not able to come any conclusion. The biggest hindrance was the
issue of the rights of minorities. The second meeting of the all parties
conference was held in March, 1928, but the leaders still had their
differences and again were not able to reach a conclusion. When the all
parties conference met for third time in Bombay on 19th May, 1928, there
was hardly any prospect of an agreed constitution.
During this conference a seven member committee under the
chairmanship of Moti Lal Nehru was formed to formulate an agreed
constitution; there were two Muslims among its seven members, Ali
Imam and Shoaib Qureshi. The Muslim members were
unrepresentative of their community and had long ago been rejected.
The Muslim members attended only one meeting and put their
signature when the report was placed before them. The committee held
several meetings and formulated constitutional proposals which are
historically termed as the Nehru Report, which ignored all Muslim
demands; the Nehru Report was published in August, 1928.
Nehru Report shocked the Muslims; Mr. Jinnah gave his opinion on
Nehru Report “this is parting of the ways”. Moulana Muhammad Ali
Johar who wass a strong supporter of the congress in response to Nehru
report left Congress.

Nehru Report demanded Dominion Status for India. The Nehru report
had conceded Muslims only 25% in the central assembly while the
Muslims wanted 33% and the separate election was refused and the
reservation of seats for the Muslims of Bengal and the Punjab was
rejected in it.
The Congress immediately accepted the report and issued a threat to
the government to launch a Non-cooperation movement against the
government if the report was not implemented by December, 1929.
An all parties national conference was held at Calcutta in December,
1928 to consider the Nehru report. The Quaid-i-Azam proposed three
amendments in the Nehru report. All these amendments were rejected
by Hindu majority. The Quaid-i-Azam declared, “The Nehru
committee has adopted a narrow-minded policy to ruin the political
future of the Muslims. I, regret to declare that the report is
extremely ambiguous and does not deserve to be implemented”.
FOURTEEN POINTS OF QUAID-I-AZAM:

The Quaid-i-Azam decided to give his own formula for the

constitutional reforms in reply to Nehru Report. He convened the
meeting of All India Muslim League in March 1929, in Delhi and
gave his famous fourteen points formula. While delivering his
presidential address, the Quaid-i-Azam declared that “no constitution
shall be accepted by the Muslims of India without the fourteen
points”.
The reasonable and moderate demands, contained in the fourteen
points, were rejected by the Hindu leaders which considerably
widened the gulf between the two communities. Mean while
Congress made an abrupt demand that new constitution must be
given with the recommendations of the Nehru Report by 31st
December, 1929. The Nehru report created great deal of suspicion in
the Muslims who were now seriously thinking for the attainment of
a separate home land for themselves.