Advanced Manufacturing

Processes

(MEC6240)
 Syllabus
General classification of unconventional machining processes;
Abrasive jet machining; Water jet machining; Abrasive water jet
machining; Magnetic abrasive jet machining; Ultrasonic machining;
Chemical machining; Electro- chemical machining; Electric discharge
machining; Electron beam machining; Laser beam machining; Ion
beam machining; Plasma arc machining; Comparative evaluation of
different processes.

References:
1. Modern Machining Processes by Pandey and Shah, Tata McGraw Hills.
2. Non-Traditional Manufacturing Proceses by Gary F. Benedict, Marcel
Dakker.
3. Non-Conventional machining by P.K. Mishra, Narosa.
4. Principals of Electro-chemical Machining by J.A. Mcgeough,Chopman &
Hall, London.
5. Manufacturing Science by Amitabha Ghosh & Asok Kumar Mallik East-
West press Private limited.

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 Course Outcomes

1. Ability to identify methods and the respective process parameters to

machine components using chemical and electro-chemical energy. Capability
to estimate them.
2. Able to identify methods and the respective process parameters to
machine using electrical energy. Capability to estimate them.
3. Gain the knowledge and able to employ various methods, tools and
equipments to machine a component with high power density. Capable to
estimate the process variables.
4. Capability to estimate process parameters and employ mechanical
energy in machining components.

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Some advanced machining processes

Electric discharge machining

Ultra sonic machining

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Chemical Machining

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Chemical Machining - United Western Chemical Machining - United Western
Enterprises, Inc. Enterprises, Inc.

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 Chemical Machining
VACCO Industries, Inc.

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 Chemical Machining
• Also referred to as chemical milling
• Uses chemicals
• to extract or remove unwanted metal for a metal surface
• Utilized when
• other more traditional methods are
– either unable to easily perform the task
– or the desired final product is too intricate
– or complex to complete

• Often used for application

– where precise is vital
– such as micro components
– or in the electronics field where traditional machining processes could damage
the surface and overall product.

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• Chemical machining is very precise
• as the areas that are desired to remain are protected from the
chemicals
• which insure that only unwanted metal is removed.
• This form of manufacturing is used
• for a number of different industries
– from the aerospace industry
– to the automotive industry

• Chemical machining
• since the nineteenth century
• pretty simple
• the surface is cleaned
• the desired patterned is masking out
– leaving only the parts that are to be etched exposed
• the metal surface is lowered into a chemical solution
• The chemical eats away at the exposed metal

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 Controlling parameters
• the time that the material is submerged
• the temperature
•  the concentration of the chemical solution
• Finally the component is removed from the
chemical solution
• and cleaned
• Chemicals used
•  depends upon the types of materials of the component

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Photo Chemical Machining
Process (PCM)
•  A chemical milling process
• Uses
• a photo resist 
– a photosensitive resist which, when exposed to light, loses its
resistance or its susceptibility to attack by an etchant or
solvent. Such materials are used in making microcircuits.
» polyhydroxystyrene-based polymers 
» mixture of diazonaphthoquinone (DNQ) and novolac resin
(a phenol formaldehyde resin).
• and etchants
• To corrosively machine away selected areas

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Examples of PCM products

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Ribbon tweeter – Aluminum on Kapton
20µm track widths

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 Integrated circuit leadframes

40 mm

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Stainless steel suspension head assemblies for disc
drives incorporating copper wiring and Kapton insulator

53mm
53 mm

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Etched decoration on Cartier watch parts

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Insect mesh for smoke detectors
100µm apertures

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Bone saw for knee and hip surgery
100µm apertures

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Automotive speaker grille

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 Other PCM products
• Perforated products such as:
• Grids, filters, meshes, screens, masks and attenuators.

• Complex geometry products such as:

• Shims, gaskets, levers, diaphragms, washers, springs, links, brackets,
connectors, probes, heat sinks and exchangers, lead frames, rotor and stator
laminations, shutter blades, iris leaves, graticules, masks, encoder discs,
jewellery.

• Surface-etched products such as:

• Rules, scales, clutch plates, emitter contacts, bearings, edge filters, hybrid
circuit pack lids, boxes and enclosures, nameplates, decorative plaques,
components etched with permanent logos, trademarks, part numbers or
instructions.

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Photo Chemical Machining Process
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PHOTOCHEMICAL ETCHNING & MILLING

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Photo Chemical Machining (PCM)

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 Designing PCM Products with
CAD
• The engineering drawing is digitised to produce data
streams that can be utilised to produce either:
• a conventional high resolution phototool via a
photoplotter or
• instructions to drive a laser to expose photoresist –coated
metal directly (known as Laser Direct Imaging or LDI)

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Photoresist-coated metal sheet being inserted
into a double-sided phototool

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 What is the purpose of a
photoresist?
• A photoresist - a uv photosensitive polymer supplied as a
liquid or dry film - is used to produce an image on metal .
Where the photoresist has been exposed to uv radiation,
it becomes insoluble in a developer solution and adheres
strongly to the metal surface to form an etchant-resistant
coating.

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 Coating

 The objective of photoresist coating is to provide a

protective surface stencil that can protect from (resist) the
action of chemical etching.

 The stencil pattern is achieved by photo-exposure of the

light-sensitive coating via uv flood exposure through a
phototool or uv laser exposure (also known as laser direct
imaging or LDI).

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 Resolution v. coating thickness

 In general, liquid photoresists will give coating

thicknesses between 2 m and 15m.
 Dry film photoresist thicknesses are generally between
10 m and 100m.
 The finest features will be resolved in the thinnest
photoresists but the stencil gains increased strength
with thicker coatings.

Note the compromise

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 Liquid photoresists
Solvent and aqueous photoresists can be applied by:
 Spinning (high speed) or Whirling (low speed)
 Dipping (the method most commonly used)
 Spraying
 Flowing
 Roller coating
and for conductive (largely aqueous) systems
 Electrophoretic coating

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 Dip-coating
 Withdrawal of a sheet of
material through the
meniscus of a liquid
photoresist is the usual
method of coating sheet
metal for PCM.

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 Dry film photoresists
Dry film photoresists can be applied by hot lamination
and the images developed by:
 Aqueous solutions (predominant in the 21st century)
 Semi-aqueous solutions (an environmental
development of the 1970s)
 Solvents (the original technology of 1960s)

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 Polyethylene
T
Diagram showing the
triple sandwich structure
P Polyethylene of dry film photoresist
together with the layout
Polyester Photoresist of a laminator. The
laminator comprises two
M H rolls of photoresist (P),
Metal sheet two polyethylene cover
M H
sheet take up rolls (T),
guide rolls (G), heated,
pressurised, laminating
P rolls (H) and motor-
driven rolls (M).
T

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 The PCM Production Process

• Once the photoresist has been imaged to produce

an etchant –resistant patterned coating, chemical
etching is used to transfer that pattern into the
metal by selective removal as shown in the
following animation.

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Multiple profile production in a
metal of thickness, T.
Photoresist

Single-sided aperture Temporary mask

Double-sided Registered,
mirror image dissimilar
aperture images 49
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 A wide range of etch profiles is therefore
possible in a chemical machining
process
Note the ability
to produce a
Development half-etch (a),
of etch conventional
profiles hole profiles (b,
with c & d), conical
increasing holes (e) and
time of etch tapered holes
(f) by chemical
machining.

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 The environmental impact
of the PCM process is rigorously controlled
Key
Environmental
impact process
Reduction of
environmental
impact process
LDI
Aqueous processes

Scrap metal Regeneration of etchant

recycling

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 Environmental Control of PCM
for “Health & Safety” and Economy
• All metal processing will produce some degree of environmental impact
but the impact of PCM can be reduced by:
 use of aqueous processing solutions instead of solvents (VOCs)
 the elimination of photographic processing by using LDI
 recycling of scrap metal waste and
 regeneration of waste etchant.
• The commonest industrial etchant is an aqueous solution of ferric
chloride (FeCl3). The waste product from etching metals is ferrous
chloride (FeCl2). By employing strong chemical oxidising agents, the waste
FeCl2 can be converted back to FeCl3 etchant (known as regeneration).
This reduces both environmental impact and the cost of waste etchant
disposal.

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 Competing technologies:
the designer needs to choose
the lowest-cost manufacturing
process that also meets the
technical specifications of the
product

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Electro-Chemical Machining Process
(ECM)

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 Advantages
• Low-level tool wear (cathode), an ideal precondition for batch production
• Surface finishes
– Up to Ra 0.05
• Precision machining
• No thermal and mechanical effects
– therefore, no changes in the material properties
• Hardness, toughness and magnetic qualities of the material remain unchanged
• Possibility to machine diminutive and thin-walled contours
• A high degree of repeat accuracy in the machining of the surface structure
• Simple but highly efficient production process
– no need for subsequent deburring or polishing
• Rough-machining, finish-machining and polishing in a single operation
• Possibility to machine superalloys
• Possibility to simultaneously machine macro and micro structures
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 Disadvantages
• High energy consumption.
• Non conducting material cannot be machined.
• Corrosion and rust of ECM machine can be
hazardous
– But preventive measures can help in this regard.

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Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
• Work-piece is connected to
– Positive (+ve)
• Tool is connected to
– Negative (-ve)
• Current density is
– Inversely proportional to gap
• Gap is
– 0.1 to 0.2 mm
• Energy required
– 30 times the conventional process
• MRR is
– Independent of work piece hardness
• Tool and work are subjected
– Large force exerted by high fluid pressure

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 Electro chemistry of ECM
• Faraday’s law of electrolysis
– The amount of chemical change produced by an
electric current i.e. the amount of any material
dissolved or deposited , is proportional to the
quantity of electricity passed.
– The amounts of different substances dissolved or
deposited by the same quantity of electricity are
proportional to their chemical equivalent weight

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 Mathematically
• m →Itϵ
• Or,
m =Itϵ/F
where
m = weight (in grams) of a material dissolved or deposited
I = current (in amperes)
t = time (in Seconds)
ϵ = gram equivalent weight of the material
F = Faraday constant
=96,500 coulombs

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 Also as
IA
MRR  m
 
FZ

Where,

F = faraday’s constant = 96,500 Columns = 26.8 amp-hours

I = current flowing in amperes,

Z = Valances of metal dissolved,

A = atomic weight of material in grams,

MRR = Material removal rate in grams per second.

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Detailed electro chemistry

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Fe  Fe 2   2e   0.409v
Cu  Cu 2   2e   0.304v
Difference between electrode potential
= 0.713 v A B

Electrode emf OŦ

potential
for A Electrode O+
potential
for B

Fig. (a). Material dissolution

Fig. Cell emf
and deposition

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 Principle of electrolysis

V
Fe Cu
Fe Cu

Flow of
electron

NaCl + H2O
NaCl + H2O

Fig. (a). Case with extra

Fig. (a). Case without
source of emf
extra source of emf

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 Realization of ECM
• Aqueous solution of NaCl
– The electrolyte
• Voltage difference applied
– Across electrodes
• Reactions
– at anode
Fe  Fe 2   2e
– At cathode
2H 2 O  2e  H 2  2(OH ) 

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 Cont----------
• +ve metal ions move towards cathode
• -ve hydroxyl ions move towards anode
• Form ferrous hydroxide
Fe 2   2(OH )   Fe (OH ) 2
• Ferrous hydroxides form insoluble ppts
• H2 is generated at cathode
• In ECM, proper choice of
– Electrodes
– Electrolyte
Be such that
• No deposition at either electrode can take place

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 Cont----------------
• When anode is an alloy with
– Atomic weight of
• A1, A2, A3, ………………..
– Valencies
• Z1, Z2, Z3, ………………..
– Composition ( by weight)
• x1%, x2%, x3%, ………………..
– Mass(mi) of element xi in v volume of alloy of
density ρ is:
x i
mi  gram
100
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 Cont----------------
• Charge(qi) required for mi in the volume v
x i Z i F
qi  coulomb
100 A i

• Volume, V of alloy of density ρ removed per unit

charge is given by
100 1
V   vi  cm 3 / ampere  sec
F  Z 
  xi i A 
 i

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• Density of the alloy ρ is
M  mi M x i
  
V  vi Mx i

i
1
  gm / cm 3
xi

i
 x i  1

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 Metal Atomic weight Valency of Specific gravity
dissolution

Aluminium 26.97 3 2.67

Chromium 51.99 2/3/6 7.19
Cobalt 58.93 2/3 8.85
Copper 63.57 1/2 8.96
Iron 55.85 2/3 7.86
Nickel 58.71 2/3 8.90
Tin 118.69 2/4 7.30
Titanium 47.9 3/4 4.51
Tungsten 183.85 6/8 19.3
Zinc 65.37 2 7.13
Silicon 28.09 4 2.33
Manganese 54.94 2/4/6/7 7.43

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 Problem
• Calculate the material removal rate of Nimonic 75
alloy when a current of 1000 ampere is passed. Use
the lowest valency of dissolution for each element.

Element Ni Cr Fe Ti Si Mn Cu
% by weight 72.5 19.5 5.0 0.4 1.0 1.0 0.6

Atomic weight 58.71 51.99 55.85 118.69 28.09 54.94 63.57

• Answer:
Valency
2.12/3 2/3/6
cm3/min 2/3 2/4 4 2/4/6/7 1/2

• Experimental
Specificgravity 8.90value:2.0
7.19 cm3/min
7.86 7.30 2.33 7.43 8.96

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 In actual ECM process
• Various factors affect mrr
• Process is seldom ideal
• Actual mrr differs from theoretical equation
– Dissolution depends on work material
• E.g. mrr with Ni as work material
– Theoretically Ni is based as divalent
– At higher current trivalent dissolution takes place
– Sometimes dissolution valence depends on electrolytes
• E.g. Copper
– Mono-valent in chloride solutions
– Divalent nitrite solutions

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 Potential profile across the electrode

1. Electrode potential
2. Over-voltage
 Due to activation polarization
 Electrochemical changes is in equilibrium when
no current flows
 Electrode potential acts as barrier to a faster rate
of reaction
 Additional energy to be supplied to get required
mrr
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 Cont.............
3. Concentration polarization
 Ions migrates towards the electrodes of opposite polarities
 Cause concentration of ions near the electrode surfaces
 Each ion passes through this concentration barrier to release its
charge
 Extra voltage is required
4. Ohmic over-voltage
o Extra resistance to the passage of current due to thr solid films of
solid materials formed on the electrolyte surface
5. Ohmic resistance of electrolyte
– Due to ohmic voltage drop across the bulk electrolyte
– This is main voltage drop in the circuit which obey Ohm’s law

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 The current, I due to overvoltage, ∆V at
anode/cathode
V  V
I
R

Where R = ohmic resistance of the electrolyte

• The conductivity of tool and work (e.g. For iron is 105 Ω-1cm-1 )are much
larger than
– the conductivity of electrolyte (i.e. 0.1 to 1.0 Ω -1cm-1 only).
• The surfaces of tool and work are practically equi-potential.
• Conductivity of electrolyte is not constant due to
– Temperature variation
– Accumulation of bubbles

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 Kinematics yand dynamics of ECM
Electrolyte flow Work +
with velocity v y V
-
Tool x

• Figure shows electrodes with parallel sufaces

• Work is fed with a constant velocity v in direction y normal
to electrode surfaces
• One dimensional problem
• Instantaneous distance of the work surface, y
• Let work be that of a pure metal
• Let the over-voltage is ∆V
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 Cont.........
• The current density J is given as
  V  V 
J
y

• Where, κ= conductivity of electrolyte

• mrr of work recedes its surface in y-direction
w.r.t. Its original surface with a velocity V’
• V’ is volumetric material removal rate
(mrr)/area of the work surface
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The rate at which the gap y changes is given
as
dy AJ
 f
dt ZF
dy  A V  V   1
or,   f
dt  ZF y
dy 
  f
dt y
• Where, λ = a constant parameter
• This is basic equation representing the
dynamics of ECM

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 At zero feed, f=0
dy 

dt y
y 2  y 20  2 t

y  y 20  2 t

• y0 =initial feed
y(t)

y0

Time, t
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 Constant feed, f= a constant

0 f
• Velocity of recession of electrode ye
surface remains constant 
ye 
• The gap = equilibrium gap = ye f
y fy
• Let y  
ye 
y  and  t  non  dim ensional t f 2t
t 
& y  y0 ye / f 
dy 1
or,  1
= initial condition dt y
 y0 1 
t  y 0  y  ln
 y 1 
 

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 Note: The plot shows that the gap
4 approaches the equilibrium value ye
ȳ y0=4 irrespective to the initial condition.

1.5
1
0.5

0
0
0 2 4
Ŧ
Figure . Plot of ȳ verses Ŧ
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 Feed motion inclined to surface
Tool

_
• The component of the feed θ
f f cosθ
normal to the surface = f cosθ
• The equilibrium gap = λ/ f cosθ
Work

Figure. Feed direction is not

normal to electrode surface

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 Machining of uneven surface
ȳ
• Unlike other machining operation
• Metal removed from all portions
of work surface Work
Valley
• The projected outwards

(hill/nearer the tool surface) get 1

machined quicker than those
projecting inwards (valley) Hill

• Smoothen the unevenness

• Let equilibrium work surface, ȳ = Tool
1, the desired final work surface
Figure. ECM smoothening of
uneven work surface

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 Cont...................
• The deviations from the desired surface are the defects
of non-dimensional depth or height ( ). Hence 
  y  ye
  y 1
 
 t   0    ln 0 
  

• Theoretically, infinite time is required to remove complete

defects _
• Practically, as soon as δ goes below pre-assigned value,
the process is finished

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 Problem
• In an ECM process on a flat surface, a 10 V dc supply is
used. the conductivity of electrolyte is 0.2 Ω-1cm-1, and
feed rate is 1 mm/min. The work-piece is pure cobalt.
Calculate the equilibrium gap when the over-voltage is 1.5
V. (At. wt. = 58.93, Z = 2, ρ = 8.85).
Ans. 0.04 cm
• If work material is pure iron then, ye = 0.04 cm.
• Theoretically, ye can be of any value. But
– in practice, the tool surface is not perfectly flat
– If ye is too small, tool may touch the work and cause short circuit

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 Problem
• The surface irregularities of tool and work are 5 μm
and 8 μm respectively. The work is of pure nickel and a
dc of 12 V is employed. estimate the largest feed rate.
assume an over-voltage of 1.5 V. (At. wt. = 58.71, Z = 2,
ρ = 8.90).
• Ans. 35.7 mm/min

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 Machining force
• Material removal takes place at the atomic level.
• It appears to be negligible, but
• Electrolyte is to be provided adequately
• Large hydro-static force on
– tool
– work
• Electrolyte flow
– avoids ion concentration
– avoids deposition on tool
– removes precipitates
– avoids over heating
• it is very important parameter

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 Affect of heat generation
• Let there be no conduction of heat through
electrodes
dθ = temperature rise
dx = length of passing the temperature
J = current density
κ = conductivity of electrolyte
v = flow velocity
ρc = density of electrolyte
ce = specific heat of electrolyte
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 Conductivity depends on the temperature:
K0 = conductivity at temperature θ0
   0 1      0   α, C = constants
J 2 dx L = total length along the
d  temperature rise
 0 1      0    c c e v y = length of the gap
η = viscosity of the electrolyte

 
J 2 dx
1      0   d  C p = total pressure (assuming
 0 c c e v turbulent flow)
Re = Reynolds number( with
J 2L characteristic dimension 2y)
v
  
 0     2   c c e v
 2  Note: 1st term is required to
overcome the viscous friction 2nd
 0.3164 c v 2 L  c v 2  term is required to overcome inertia
p  
 4 y Re 
0.25 2 1st term gives the pressure at tool
 face.

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 Reynolds Number
• Where,
ρ =density of the fluid,
V = velocity of the fluid,

VL
μ = viscosity of fluid,

Re 
L = length or diameter of the fluid.

• Re > 4000, turbulent flow 

4000 > Re > 2300, transition
Re < 2100 laminar

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 Problem
• During ECM on iron work with a square face (25.4 mm x 25.4 mm) copper
tool, brine electrolyte is used at a feed rate of 2 mm/min. Both (tool and
work) have flat surfaces. The dc voltage used is 10 V and total over-voltage
is 1.5 V. Boiling temperature of electrolyte is 95oC. Compute the force
acting on the tool. Assume the following properties of the electrolyte:
Viscosity = 0.876 x 10-3 kg/m-sec
Relative density = 1.088
Specific heat = o.997
Conductivity = 0.2 Ω-1cm-1
Ambient temperature = 35oC
Neglect the variation in conductivity of electrolyte due to the temperature
change. The electrolyte is fed from one side of the square shaped tool.
Ans. 238 kN/m2, 79 N

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Effect of heat and H2 bubbles generation
• Change in conductivity of electrolyte due to
– Increase in electrolyte temperature
• Flow of electricity
• Change in conductivity
• Non-uniformity in current density along the direction of electrolyte flow
– Evolution of hydrogen bubbles
• During machining
• Swept by electrolyte
• Increase in concentration of bubbles in the direction of electrolyte flow
• Overall increase in current density in the direction of electrolyte flow
• Causes variation in equilibrium gap
– Formation of precipitates

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 Surface finish
• Surface finish is adversely affected by
– Selective dissolution
– Sporadic breakdown of the anodic film
– Flow separation and formation of eddies
– Evolution of hydrogen gas

110
 Selective dissolution
• In alloys
– Different constituents
– with varying electrode potentials
• In pure metals
– Dissolution potentials at grain boundaries are
different from
– Those inside the grain

111
 Work
A
B
Anode potential

Potential
required for
A, VA
Potential
Voltage profile of required for B,
Tool VB
electrolyte across
the gap

Figure. Unevenness due to difference in dissolution potentials of different phases

112
• Let two constituents are A & B with
• Dissolution potentials of VB > VA
• Since whole anode surface is equi-potential
• And electrolyte potential varies across the gap
• Surface of grain B projects away from the
constituent A
– To meet the electrolyte with a lower potential
– So that a larger difference VB is achieved
• At steady state the work surface will be
uneven

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 Work
A

Anode potential
B
δ Potential
required
for A, VA
Potential
Voltage profile of required for B,
Tool VB
electrolyte across
the gap

Figure. (b) Difference in dissolution potentials of different phases

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Reduction in unevenness with an increase in
anode potential
• When potential gradient is higher
– Less unevenness
– Other parameters remaining same
– Height of projection of grain B is less
– Let V be the anode potential
– then VV
( y  ) A
 VV
y
B

 VV 
   1  B
 y
 VV A 
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Work
A

Anode potential
B
δ δ’
Potential
Reduction in required
unevenness Potential for A, VA
Voltage profile of required for B,
Tool VB
electrolyte across
the gap

Figure. Reduction in unevenness with an increase in anode potentials

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Sporadic breakdown of anodic film
• Main reason
– Gradual fall in potential
difference between
• the work surface and
• the electrolyte region
– away from the machining
area

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 Tool

Insulation

P1 P2

V VP1
VP2

Work

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Sporadic breakdown of anodic film
(cont.........)
• Till P1
– The potential is enough to cause dissolution
• At P1
– Potential falls below dissolution potential of one phase
• Stops dissolution
– Continues to fall
• Stops dissolution of more phases
– Results uneven surface
– Ultimately only a few phases dissolve
– Active phases occupy part of anode surface
– Results concentration of electric field
– These phases dissolve rapidly
– Form pits
• Beyond P2
– Anode surface potential drops very low
– No dissolution

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 Flow separation and formation of eddies

• Hills and valleys on anode surface

– May be due to
• Improper tool design
• Electrolyte flow path
– Separation of electrolyte flow
– Formation of eddy
– Separated from main stream
– A large concentration of metal ions
– Results in high concentration over-voltage
– Location variation of material removal rates
– Uneven surface finish

120
 Evolution of hydrogen gas
• Collected by the flowing electrolyte
• Reduces specific conductivity of
electrolyte
• Increases hydrogen concentration in
downstream
• Overall deteriorates surface finish

121
 Tool design
Major aspects of tool design:
• Determination of tool shape
• Considerations e.g.
– Electrolyte flow
– Insulation
– Strength
– Etc.

122
 y=φ(x)
Work
Pw(xw,yw)
f

θ
Pt(xt,yt)

y Tool

Figure. Generation of tool surface for given work surface

123
Theoretical determination of tool shape
• Required shape of machined work surface
• Let
Applied voltage = V
Over-voltage = ∆V
Feed rate = f
Equilibrium gap = ge
Inclination of feed direction to the surface normal = θ
Then,
A V  V 
g 
ZFf cos 
e

124
 Cont..........
• Coordinates x and y are so that y-axis and feed
direction are parallel
• Let there be no variation in z-direction
• Hence, work tool geometry be
y = φ(x)
• At steady state, any point Pw(xw,yw) on work can be
transform into Pt(xt,yt) on tool surface
• So that
PwPt = ge
125
 Cont..........
• Then y w  y t  PPt cos   g e cos 
x t  x w  Pw Pt sin   g e sin 
A V  V  
yt  yw   yw 
ZFf f
A V  V  
xt  xw  tan   x w  tan 
ZFf f
dy
tan   w
dx w
 dy w
xt  xw  ............(1)
f dx w

& y t  y w  ...................( 2)
f
126
 
 y t  ( x w ) 
f
  d( x w )  
 x t   
 f dx w  f

• When φ(x) is prescribed, it may possible to express

xw and yw in a function of xt and yt, say ψ(xt, yt).
Therefore, tool surface geometry is represented by:

   
y   x   x, y   
 f  f

127
 Cont..........
For _ example :
y w  a  bx w  cx 2w
d
 b  2cx w
dx
  d 
 b  2c  x t 
 f dx 
 d
 b  2cx t  2c
f dx
d b  2cx t
    x t , y t 
dx 1  2c 
f

128
 In case of 3-dimensions
• E.g.
y = a + bx + cx2 + dz + ez2 + gxz
• Required geometry can be computed
Note: The method discussed above is applicable for
smooth surfaces with gentle variation i.e. the
current flow line are or parallel to one another.
• For complex shapes
• sharp curves
• sudden changes
– Solution of electric field is necessary

129
 Problem
• The geometry of a work surface with single curvature is given by
y = 10 +0.3 x – 0.05 x2
where x and y are in cm. The process data are as follows:
Applied potential = 15 V
Over-voltage = 0.67 V
Feed velocity = 0.75 mm/min in y-direction
Work material = copper
Electrolyte conductivity = 0.2 Ω-1cm-1
Determine the required tool geometry.

Ans. y = 9.8154 + 0.3157 x – 0.0517 x2

130
Further design considerations

• Design for electrolyte flow

• Design for insulation
• etc

131
 Functions of electrolyte
• Complete the electric circuit
– Electrical conductivity should be high
• Sustain required electrochemical reactions
– Anode should dissolve continuously
• And efficiently
– Should not discharge ions on cathode
– Electrolyte should have good chemical stability
• Carry away heat generated
• Carry away waste product
• Electrolyte
– Safe
– Inexpensive
– Noncorrosive
• Generally
– Aqueous of inorganic compound

132
 Electrolytes
Alloy Electrolyte
Iron base Mostly 20% NaCl aqueous solution

Nickel base HCl or mixture of brine and H2SO4

Titanium base 10% HF + 10% HCl + 10% HNO3

Co-Cr-W base NaCl
WC base Strong alkaline solution

133
134
 Effects of electrolyte
• Material removal is gentle
• Low (~zero) residual compressive stress
– ~ 50 kg/mm2 conventional machining processes
– 10 to 25% lower fatigue strength of product
• Because of
– Micro crack surface are exposed
– Stress free surface
– Fatigue strength can be increased
• Mechanical polishing
• Glass bead blasting
• Vapour blasting etc
• Negligible depth (0.001 mm) of work hardened surface
– While 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm in conventional machining processes

135
Thanks

136