Bridge Engineering

Lecture 1 A

Planning of Bridges
Dr. Shahzad Rahman
 Bridge Planning
• Traffic Studies
• Hydrotechnical Studies
• Geotechnical Studies
• Environmental Considerations
• Alternatives for Bridge Type
• Economic Feasibility
• Bridge Selection and Detailed Design
 Traffic Studies

Rive
r
New Road Link
Existing Network

New Bridge

City Center
 Traffic Studies
• Traffic studies need to be carried out to
ascertain the amount of traffic that will
utilize the New or Widened Bridge
• This is needed to determine Economic
Feasibility of the Bridge
• For this Services of a Transportation
Planner and or Traffic Engineer are
Required
• Such Studies are done with help of Traffic
Software such as TransCAD, EMME2
etc.
 Traffic Studies
• Traffic Studies should provide following
information
– Traffic on Bridge immediately after opening
– Amount of traffic at various times during life of the
Bridge
– Traffic Mix i.e. number of motorcars, buses, heavy
trucks and other vehicles
– Effect of the new link on existing road network
– Predominant Origin and Destination of traffic that
will use the Bridge
– Strategic importance of the new/improved Bridge
 Hydrotechnical Studies

• A thorough understanding of the river and

river regime is crucial to planning of
Bridge over a river
• Hydrotechnical Studies should include:
• Topographic Survey 2km upstream and
2km downstream for small rivers
including Longitudinal section and X-
sections
• For big rivers 5kms U/S and 2kms D/S
should be surveyed
• Navigational Requirements
•
 Hydrotechnical Studies
• Scale of the topographic map
– 1:2000 for small rivers
– 1:5000 for large rivers
• The High Flood Levels and the
Observed Flood Level should
be indicated map
• Sufficient Number of x-sections
should be taken and HFL and
OFL marked on them
• River Bed surveying would
require soundings
 Hydrotechnical Studies
• Catchment Area Map
• Scale recommended
– 1:50,000 or
– 1:25,000
• Map can be made
using GT Sheets
available from
Survey of Pakistan
• All Reservoirs, Rain
Gauges Stns.,
River Gauge Stns.,
should be marked
on map Catchment of River Indus
Hydrotechnical Studies

River Catchment Area

Hydrotechnical Studies

River Catchment Boundaries with Tributaries

Hydrotechnical Studies

River Catchment Boundaries with Sub-Basin Boundaries

 Hydrological Data
• Following Hydrological Data should be
collected:
• Rainfall Data from Rain Gauge Stations in
the Catchment Area
• Isohyetal Map of the Catchment Area
showing contours of Annual Rainfall
• Hydrographs of Floods at River Gauge
Stations
• Flow Velocities
• Sediment Load in River Flow during floods
 Hydrologic Data

Example of an ISOHYETAL MAP

 Hydrologic Data

Example of River Hydrograph

 Hydrologic Data

Example of a River Hydrograph

 Design Flood Levels
• AASHTO Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating
Design Flood Levels
–
•
 Design Flood Levels
• AASHTO Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating
Design Flood Levels
–
•
 Design Flood Levels
• CANADIAN MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION
 Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Design Flood Levels
 Design Flood Levels
• CANADIAN MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION
 Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Design Flood Levels
 Design Flood Levels
FREEBOARD REQUIREMENTS
• CANADIAN MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION
 Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Freeboard Requirements
 Estimating Design Flood
• Flood Peak Discharge at Stream or River Location
Depends upon:
• Catchment Area Characteristics
– Size and shape of catchment area
– Nature of catchment soil and vegetation
– Elevation differences in catchment and between
catchment and bridge site location
• Rainfall Climatic Characteristics
– Rainfall intensity duration and its spatial distribution
• Stream/River Characteristics
– Slope of the river
– Baseline flow in the river
– River Regulation Facilities/ Dams, Barrages on the river
 Methods of Estimating Design Flood
1.Empirical Methods
2.
3.Flood Frequency Analysis
4.
5.Rational Method
Empirical Methods of Peak Flood Estimation

• Empirical Formulae have been determined that

relate Catchment Area and other weather or
river parameters to Peak Flood Discharge
• Popular Formulae for Indo-Pak are:
– Dickens Formula
Q = Discharge in Cusecs
Q = 825 A 3/ 4
A = Catchment Area in Sq. Miles

7000 A
–Inglis Q=
Formula A+4
–Ryve’s Q = C A2 / 3
Formula
C = 450 for areas within 15 miles off coast
560 between 15 – 100 miles off coast
 Flood Frequency Analysis Method
• Usable at gauged sites where river
discharge data is available for sufficient
time in past
• Following Methods are commonly used
– Normal Distribution Method
– Log-Normal Distribution
– Log-Plot Graphical Method
–
 Flood Frequency Analysis Method
• Normal Distribution Method
– Based on Assumption that events follow the
shape of Standard Normal Distribution
Curve
 Normal Distribution Method

probability
QP = QM + K Tr σ Q

QP = Discharge Associated with Probability of Occurrence P

QM = Mean Discharge over the data set
σQ = Standard Deviation of the Discharge data set
KTr = Frequency factor corresponding to Probability of Occurrence P
Example of Peak Flood Estimation Flood

Example
Flood Frequency An

Actual
Year Year Max Flood Xi -
Example of Peak Flood Estimation Flood
Ranked Flow
Actual (Decending
2
Year Year Max Flood Xi - Xavg (Xi - Xavg) Order) Rank Probability Return Period
(No.) Q R P = R/n Tr = 1/P
2
(cumecs) (cumecs) (cumecs ) (yrs)
1982 13 20 -3.1 9.8 18 13 0.54 1.85
1983 14 15 -8.1 66.0 17 14 0.58 1.71
1984 15 35 11.9 141.0 17 15 0.63 1.60
1985 16 45 21.9 478.5 16 16 0.67 1.50
1986 17 23 -0.1 0.0 16 17 0.71 1.41
1987 18 14 -9.1 83.3 15 18 0.75 1.33
1988 19 12 -11.1 123.8 15 19 0.79 1.26
1989 20 17 -6.1 37.5 15 20 0.83 1.20
1990 21 25 1.9 3.5 14 21 0.88 1.14
1991 22 15 -8.1 66.0 14 22 0.92 1.09
1992 23 21 -2.1 4.5 13 23 0.96 1.04
1993 24 15 -8.1 66.0 12 24 1.00 1.00

Sample Pts = n = 24
Mean Qm= M 23.125
Sumof Squares = 1 − 2638.6
S 2
=
n −1
∑( x j − x )2 =

Variance = S
2
114.72
V = =
( n − 1 )

Standard Deviation =
σ = V = 10.71

Coefficient of Variation = Cv = σ/M= 0.463

3
Skewness Coefficient = SC= 3 Cv + Cv = 1.49
Input Return Period (Years) = Tr = 100 Input Value
Probability = p = 1/ Tr 0.01
Flood Estimate = Qt =
Example of Peak Flood Estimation Flood
Input Return Period (Years) = Tr = 100 Input Value
Probability = p = 1/ Tr 0.01
Flood Estimate = Qt =

 
 1 
w = ln  2 

 p 

w= 3.03485528

= w−
2 . 51557 + 0 . 802853 w + 0 . 010328 w
K Tr 2 3
1 + 1 .532788 w + 0 .189269 w + 0 . 001308 w
KTr = 2.32678649
Flood Estimate = Qt =
Q =Q
t m
+ Ktr σ

Qt = 48.05 Cumecs

10
 Log-Normal Distribution Method

• Yields better Results

Compared to Normal
Distribution Method

probability
ln QP = ln QM + K Tr σ ln Q

Log Q or Ln Q

lnQP = Log of Discharge Associated with Probability of Occurrence P

lnQM= Mean of Log Discharge over the data set
σlnQ = Standard Deviation of the Log of Discharge data set
KTr = Frequency factor corresponding to Probability of Occurrence P
QP = Antilog (ln QP) = Discharge Associated with Probability of Occurrence P
 Example of Peak Flood Estimation Flood
Log-Plot Method
Log Plot Discharge Vs Return Period
80

70

60
Discharge (cumecs)

50

40

Observed Discharge
30
Log. (Observed Discharge)
20
y = 12.724Ln(x) + 11.733
10

0
1 10 100
Retun Period (Yrs)
Trendline Equation is

Qt = 12.724 Ln(Tr) + 11.213

For Return Period Tr = 50 yrs

Qt = 12.724 Ln (50) + 11.213 = 61.0 cumecs
For Return Period Tr = 100 yrs
Qt = 12.724 Ln (100) + 11.213 = 69.8 cumecs
Rational Method of Peak Flood Estimation
• Attempts to give estimate of Design Discharge
taking into account:
– The Catchment Characteristics
– Rainfall Intensity
– Discharge Characteristics of the Catchment

Q = C IT A
Q = Design Discharge
IT = Average rainfall intensity (in/hr) for some recurrence interval, T
during that period of time equal to Tc.
Tc = Time of Concentration
A = Area of the catchment in Sq. miles
C = Runoff coefficient; fraction of runoff, expressed as a
dimensionless decimal fraction, that appears as surface runoff
from the contributing drainage area.
Rational Method of Peak Flood Estimation
• Time of Concentration can be estimated using
Barnsby Williams Formula which is widely
used by US Highway Engineers
0.9 L
Tc = 0.1 0.2
A S

L = Length of Stream in Miles

A = Area of the catchment in Sq. miles
S = Average grade from source to site in percent
 Rational Formula – Runoff Coefficient
Area Characteristic Run-off Coefficient C
Steep Bare Rock 0.90
Steep Rock with Woods 0.80
Plateau with light cover 0.70
Densely built-up areas 0.90 – 0.70
Residential areas 0.70 – 0.50
Stiff Clayey soils 0.50
Loam 0.40 – 0.30
Suburbs with gardens 0.30
Sandy soils 0.1 – 0.20
Jungle area 0.10 – 0.25
Parks, Lawns, Fields 0.25 - 0.50
 Geotechnical Studies
• Geotechnical Studies should provide the
following Information:
• The types of Rocks, Dips, Faults and
Fissures
• Subsoil Ground Water Level, Quality,
Artesian Conditions if any
• Location and extent of soft layers
• Identification of hard bearing strata
• Physical properties of soil layers
 Geotechnical Studies

Example Geological Profile:

Cross section of the soil on the route of the Paris
The diagram above shows the crossing over the Seine via the Bir Hakeim bridge
and the limestone quarries under Trocadéro
 Geotechnical Studies
Example: Cross section of the Kansas River, west of Silver Lake, Kansas

Typical Borehole
 Seismic Considerations

Source: Building Code of Pakistan

Tectonic Setting of the Bridge Site

Source: Geological Survey of Pakistan

 Environmental Considerations

• Impact on Following Features of Environment need to

considered:
– River Ecology which includes:
• Marine Life
• Wildlife along river banks
• Riverbed
• Flora and fauna along river banks
– Impact upon dwellings along the river if any
– Impact upon urban environment if the bridge in
an urban area
– Possible impact upon archeological sites in
vicinity

 Bridge Economic Feasibility
• Economic Analysis is Required at
Feasibility Stage to justify expenditure of
public or private funds
• A Bridge is the most expensive part of a
road transportation network
• Types of Economic Analyses
– Cost Benefit Ratio Analysis
– Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Analysis
 Time

Project Life End Date

Salvage Value
Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)
Bridge Economic Analysis/

Construction Stage
Project Start Date
Costs Stream Benefits Stream
 Project Cost Benefit Analysis
• The objective of LCCA is to
– Estimate the costs associated with the Project during
Construction an its service life. These include routine
maintenance costs + Major Rehab Costs
– Estimate the Benefits that will accrue from the Project
including time savings to road users, benefits to business
activities etc.
– Bring down the costs and benefits to a common reference pt.
in time i.e. just prior to start of project (decision making
time)
– Facilitate decision making about economic feasibility by
calculating quantifiable yardsticks such as Benefit to Cost
Ratio (BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
• Note: Salvage Value may be taken as a Benefit
 This includes cost of the Right-of-Way and substructure
 What is Life Cycle Cost?
• An economic analysis procedure that uses
engineering inputs

• Compares competing alternatives

considering all significant costs

• Expresses results in equivalent dollars

(present worth)
 Time Period of Analysis
• Normally equal for all alternatives

• Should include at least one major

rehabilitation
• Needed to capture the true economic
benefit of each alternative
• Bridge design today is based on a
probabilistic model of 100 years
 Bridge Economic Analysis/
Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)

Costs Stream

Project Life End Date

Project Start Date

Construction Stage
Time

Benefits Stream

Salvage Value
Problem:

•Costs and Benefits Change over the life of the Project

•Amount of Money/Benefit accrued some time in future is worth less in terms

of Today’s money

•Same is the case with the benefits accrued over time

•The Problem now is as to How to find the Worth of a Financial Amount in

Future in terms of Today’s Money

•This is accomplished by using the instrument of “DISCOUNT RATE”

 Bridge Economic Analysis/
Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)
DISCOUNT RATE:

The annual effective discount rate is the annual interest divided by the capital
including that interest, which is the interest rate divided by 100% plus the
interest rate. It is the annual discount factor to be applied to the future cash
flow, to find the discount, subtracted from a future value to find the value
one year earlier.
For example, suppose there is an investment made of $95 and pays $100 in a
year's time. The discount rate according the given definition is:

100 − 95
Discount Rate = d = = 5.0%
100
Interest Rate is calculated as $ 95 as Base
100 − 95
Interest Rate = i = = 5.26%
95
Interest Rate and Discount Rate are Related as Follows
i
Discount Rate = d = ≈ i − i2
1+i
 Discount Rate
• Thus Discount Rate is that rate which can be
used to obtain the Present Value of Money
that is spent or collected in future
Cost/ Benefit Projected
Backward
Costs Stream

Cn
Co
Benefits Stream

Time
Project Start Date

Bo
Bn

Net Present value of Cost incurred = Co = (1 - d)n Cn

In Year n

Net Present value of Cost incurred = Bo = (1 - d)n Bn

In Year n
 What Discount Rate to Use?
• A first estimate of appropriate Discount
rate can be made as follows:
Estimate of
Discount Rate = Federal Bank Lending Rate – Average Long-term Inflation Rate
Note: By subtracting the Inflation Rate in arriving at a Discount Rate the
effect of Inflation can be removed from consideration during
Economic Analysis

The Discount Rate after subtracting the Inflation Rate is also

Referred to as the “Real Discount Rate”
 Cost Considerations

Present Worth

Salvage

Costs
Initial Cost
Rehabilitation Cost Maintenance and
Costs

 Inspection
Cost


 Years

Salvage
Value
 Cost Benefit Ratio
Formula for Cost
Benefit Ratio

∑(1 − d ) n
Bn
Benefit To Cost Ratio = Present Value of Benefits = 0
L
Present Value of Costs
∑(1 − d )
0
n
Cn

Where L = Life Span of the Project in Years

d = Discount Rate
Bn = Benefit in year n
Cn = Cost incurred in year n
 Net Present Worth/ Value
• Net Present Worth/ Value = NPW or NPV
is defined as follows:

NPW = NPV = Present Value of Benefits – Present Value of Costs

Note: If a Number of alternatives are being compared, the alternative

that has the highest Net Present Worth is the preferable one and
will also have the higher Benefit to Cost Ratio
 What is Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
• IRR may be defined as that Discount Rate
at which the Benefit to Cost Ratio (BCR)
of a Project becomes exactly 1.0
• It is a better measure of economic viability
of a project compared to Benefit to Cost
Ratio
• It is a good indicator of how much inflation
increase and interest rate hike a project
can tolerate and still be viable
 Present Worth Factor

pwf = (1 − d ) n

pwf = Present Worth Factor for discount rate d

and year n
d = Discount rate
n = Number of year when the cost/ benefit
will occur
 Present Worth Analysis
 Discounts all future costs and benefits to
the present:


t=L

PW = FC +  pwf [MC+IC+FRC+UC] + pwf [S]
 t=0
PW = Present Worth/ Value of the Project
FC = First (Initial) Cost
t = Time Period of Analysis (ranges from 0 
 L)
MC = Maintenance Costs
IC = Inspection Costs
FRC = Future Rehabilitation Costs
UC = Users Costs
S = Salvage Values or Costs
pwf = Present Worth Factor
 Time Period of Analysis
• Normally equal for all alternatives

• Should include at least one major rehabilitation

– Needed to capture the true economic benefit of
each alternative

• Bridge design today is based on a probabilistic model of

100 years
 Maintenance Costs
• Annual cost associated with the upkeep of the
structure
• Information is difficult to obtain for a given
project
• Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure
(sqft)
• Best Guess Values
– Frequency - Annual
– Concrete 0.05 % of Initial Cost
– Structural Steel 0.05 % of Initial Cost
 Inspection Costs
• Should be taken for all alternatives preferably
every two years
• Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure
(sqft) and by construction material
• Best Guess Values
– Frequency - Biannual
– Concrete 0.15 % of Initial Cost
– Structural Steel 0.20 % of Initial Cost
 Future Painting Costs
• Only applies to structural steel structures but
excludes weathering steel
• Should occur every 20 years
• Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure
(sqft)
• Best Guess Values
– Frequency – every 20 years
– Concrete 0.0 % of Initial Cost
– Structural Steel 7.0 % of Initial Cost
 Future Rehabilitation Costs
• The frequency is not only a function of time but also the
growing traffic volume and the structural beam system
• Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure (sqft) and
structural beam system
• Best Guess Values
– Frequency
• First occurrence – Concrete 40 years
• First occurrence – Structural Steel 35 years
• Annual traffic growth rate .75 % (shortens
rehab cycles)
– Concrete 20.0 % of Initial Cost
– Structural Steel22.0 % of Initial Cost
 Salvage Value/Costs

• Occurs once at end of life of structure

• Difference between
– Removal cost
– Salvage value
–
• Best Guess Values
– Removal cost 10 % of Initial Cost
– Salvage Value – Concrete - 0 % of Initial Cost
– Salvage Value – Structural Steel - 2 % of Initial
Cost
 Benefits from a Bridge
Monetizable Benefits


• Time savings to road users

• Growth in economic activity
• Saving of Vehicular wear and tear
• Reduction of accidents if applicable


Other Non-Monetizable Benefits



• Strategic Benefits