R.I Level II TWI

Radiographic Inspection
Part 1
• An object is exposed to X or Gamma radiation
• Radiation is transmitted through the object to varying
degrees dependent upon the density and thickness of
the material through which it is travelling
• Transmitted radiation can be detected by
photographic film or fluorescent screens
• This forms the basis of Radiographic Inspection, a
powerful technique which is applicable to metals,non-
metals and composites
History of Radiography
• WC Roentgen 1895
• H Becquerel 1896
• Marie and Pierre Curie 1898
• W.Coolridge 1913
• Radium Committee 1910-15
• Geiger-Muller 1920’s
Advantages of Radiography
• Directly produces a permanent record

• Detects internal flaws
• Can be used on most materials
• Real - time imaging possible in some
applications
Disadvantages of Radiography
• Health hazard
• Sensitivity affected by defect orientation
• Limited ability to detect fine cracks and other
planar defects
• Access to two sides required
• Limited by material thickness
• Skilled interpretation required
• Relatively slow
• High capital outlay and running costs
What is radiation?
Electromagnetic Radiation
• Waves of energy associated with electrical and
magnetic fields
• Electrical and magnetic fields at right angles to
each other and to the direction of propagation
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength v Photon Energy
Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
V

f
V  2.997 x10 m / sec
8
E = hf
Where h is Planks constant
(= 6.626196 x 10-34Js)
Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Travels at the speed of light

• Travels through a vacuum
• Travels in a straight line
• No electric charge or mass
• Intensity proportional to 1/D2 where D is the
distance from the source
Inverse Square Law
D1
D2
Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation:
X & GAMMA RAYS

• Absorbed and scattered by matter
• Not refracted by matter
• Causes ionisation, therefore often referred to
as “IONISING RADIATION”
• Will darken photographic film emulsion and
will cause some materials to fluoresce in the
visible or ultraviolet spectrum
• Cannot be detected by human senses
• EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH
Industrial Radiography
• X - Rays • Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the
decay of unstable
isotopes
Atomic Structure
• Positively charged nucleus surrounded by

one or more negatively charged electrons
Nucleus composed of protons and

neutrons
Atomic Structure
• Protons : have positive charge

• Neutrons : have no electrical charge,
roughly equal in size & weight to a proton
• Electrons : have negative charge equal in
magnitude to that of a proton but are very
much smaller at a mass of 1/1836 that of a
proton
• Number protons = Number electrons
Atomic Structure
Electrons orbit
Nucleus around the nucleus
-
+
+
-
Protons and Neutrons

Atomic Structure
Hydrogen H
+
-
1 proton
1 electron
Atomic Structure
Helium He
-
+
+
-
2 protons
2 neutrons
2 electrons
Atomic Structure
Lithium Li
-
-
+
++
-
3 protons
4 neutrons
3 electrons
Atomic Structure
Berylium Be
-
-
+
++
- +
4 protons -
5 neutrons
4 electrons
Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number • Atomic Mass
Number of electrons Number of neutrons
+
Number of protons
1 4 12 59
H 1 He 2 C 6 Co 27
Isotopes
• Atoms of an element having the same atomic

number but different atomic masses
• Different isotopes have different numbers of
neutrons in their nucleus
• Some isotopes are stable, while others are
unstable
Isotopes of Hydrogen
2
Deuterium H 1
+
-
1 proton
1 electron
1 neutron
Isotopes of Hydrogen
3
Tritium H 1
+
-
1 proton
1 electron
2 neutrons
Radioactive Isotopes
Some isotopes are stable, others
are not
Unstable isotopes transform into
another element and in so doing
emit radiation
3 forms of radiation:
Alpha Beta& Gamma
Neutrons may also be emitted
Radioactive Emissions
Alpha particles +
• Emitted by large nuclei such as uranium or
plutonium
• Composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons - a Helium
nucleus
226
88 Ra 222
86 Rn  He 4
2
Beta particles: 
• Emitted by neutron rich nuclei such as uranium or
plutonium
• Composed of high speed electrons

14
6 C N  e14
7
Gamma particles (or photons): 

• Emitted following the emission of an alpha or
beta particle
• Composed of photons of energy (not particles)
Radioactive Decay
210
82 Pb Bi Po Pb
210
83
210
84
206
82
  

Rate of Decay
• Curie 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations / second
• Becquerel 1 disintegration / second
• Half LifeTime taken for the activity of

an isotope to reduce by a half
Cobalt 60 5.3 years
Iridium 192 74 days
Ytterbium 169 32 days
Uranium 238 4.47 x 1010 years
Rate of Decay
Radiography
X-ray production
X-Ray Production
• X-rays are produced when a high velocity

electron interacts with a positively charged
nucleus
• Part or all of the kinetic energy of the
electron is converted into electromagnetic
radiation (X-rays)
X-Ray Production
Requirements
• Electron source
• Means of accelerating electrons to a high velocity
• Means of halting electrons
X-Ray Production
1. Electron Source : Tungsten Filament
Current
X-Ray Production
1. Electron Source : Tungsten Filament
Current
Free
electrons
THERMIONIC EMISSION
X-Ray Production
2. Accelerating Electron : Potential
Difference
-ve +ve
X-Ray Production
Difference
-ve +ve
X-Ray Production
Difference
-ve +ve
Focusing cup concentrates

electrons into a beam
X-Ray Production
3. Means of Halting Electrons : High Density
Material
-ve +ve
Tungsten Target
X-Ray Production
3. Means of Halting Electrons : High Density
Material
-ve +ve
X-Ray Production
Kinetic energy converted to Heat and X-Rays
-ve +ve
X-rays / Bremsstrahlung
Problems
• Electrons travel for only short distances

through gasses
• Kinetic Energy converted into 97% heat
and 3% X-rays
X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production - HEAT
In any X-ray tube around 95% of the energy
generated is in the form of heat
For typical 200kV portable equipment around 1kW of
heat has to be dissipated
For a 300kV constant potential laboratory unit heat
generation is typically 7.5kW
X-ray tubes of all types therefore require a cooling
system in order to prevent overheating and increase
duty cycle
Older type sets having glass envelope tubes are
generally oil or gas cooled
X-Ray Production - HEAT
A rotating anode may be used in order to help
A rotating anode may be used in order to help
dissipate heat - this type of arrangement is
generally limited to X-ray units intended for
medical use.
Modern X-ray units have so-called “metal-ceramic”
envelopes. The use of such envelopes makes it
practical to have a much higher potential
difference between the electrodes and the
envelope than was the case with glass.
This in turn permits the use of “grounded anodes”.
Such anodes are at zero volts and can therefore be
cooled directly by water
X-Ray Production - Anodes
Directional Type
PANORAMIC
ROD-ANODE
ROTATING-ANODE
USED MAINLY
FOR LOW kV,
VERY HIGH TUBE
CURRENT,
EQUIPMENT IN
MEDICAL
APPLICATIONS
X-Ray Production
• Tube current • Tube voltage

controls the controls the
amount or intensity “quality” or
of radiation penetrating ability
of the radiation
X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production
Advantages of Gamma rays
compared with X rays
• No water or electrical supplies needed
• Equipment smaller and lighter-therefore
more portable
• Easier to perform radiography in confined or
difficult to access areas
• Equipment simpler and more robust
• Less scatter
• Less initial cost
• Greater penetrating power
Disadvantages of Gamma rays compared
with X rays
• Reduced radiographic contrast
• Exposure times generally longer
• Sources need replacing - potentially greater in-
service costs
• Radiation cannot be switched off
• Generally inferior geometric unsharpness
• Remote handling necessary
• Penetrating power cannot be adjusted
GAMMA-RAY EQUIPMENT
GAMMA-RAY EQUIPMENT
ISOTOPES USED IN INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
ISOTOPES
ISOTOPES USED
USED IN
IN INDUSTRIAL
INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
RADIOGRAPHY
HIGH ENERGY X-RAY SOURCES
• X-Ray energies of up to 30 MeV are produced using
“linear accelerators” or “betatrons”. Electrostatic (Van
der Graaf) generators are also used occasionally.
• Linear Accelerators (Linacs) accelerate electrons to
high velocity using an electric wave (RF). Electrons
“surf” the electrical waves and attain high velocity.
• Betatrons accelerate electrons along a spiral path by
means of magnetic fields.
• Van der Graaf generators can develop high electrical
potentials by mechanical means, such electrical
potentials can be used to accelerate electrons.
Part 3
Radiographic Film
Base
Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Radiographic Film
Supercoat
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Supercoat
Radiographic
Pre-exposure
Film After Exposure
Un-sensitised : Stable Sensitised : Unstable
During exposure a “latent image” is formed by

“sensitised” Silver Halide crystals
LATENT IMAGE
LATENT IMAGE
• Silver Bromide crystals are not perfect, they

contain “interstitial” silver ions
• When an interstitial silver ion accepts a free
electron, it becomes a silver atom
• The silver atom is larger than the ion and
exerts a stress on the crystal lattice
• In the presence of developer this stress
causes instability and the crystal breaks down
LATENT IMAGE
• The interstitial silver atoms nucleate silver
crystals
• A single interstitial silver atom is sufficient
to cause an entire silver bromide crystal to
convert to metallic silver
• The typical size of a silver bromide crystal
in a typical photographic film emulsion is
about 1μm
• Sensitisation of a silver bromide crystal
can be caused by just a single photon of
x-ray energy
Film Types
• Grain Size Speed Quality
Coarse Fast Poor
Medium Medium Medium
Fine Slow Good
Ultra Fine V.Slow V.Good

Intensifying Screens
• Film is usually placed between 2
“intensifying screens”
• Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm,
occasionally “salt” screens may be used
• Lead screens shorten exposure time and
improve image quality by helping to reduce
the effects of scattered radiation
• Salt screens shorten exposure time, often
dramatically, but produce inferior image
quality
• Metallic - Usually lead, but other metals

such as copper may be used.
• Salt - Usually Calcium Tungstate
• Fluorometallic - These are salt screens
with a metal foil backing. They combine
the advantages of metallic and salt
screens, however, they are extremely
expensive and they are easily damaged
• (Metallic)
For radiation energy of 120 keV or greater front and back lead
intensifying screens are commonly used.
• The optimum thickness of such screens varies with radiation

energy but 0.02mm to 0.15mm is typical.
• The front screen reduces the effect of radiation scattered by

objects situated in front of the film (including the object which
is being radiographed) and helps to shorten exposure time.
• The back screen reduces the effect of radiation scattered by

objects situated behind the film and (to a lesser extent when
compared with the front screen) helps to shorten exposure
time
Film Processing
• Developer - reducing agent

• Stop Bath - acetic acid
• Fixer - dissolves silver halide
• Washing
• Drying
Film Processing
• Development
Latent image converted into metallic silver
3-5 mins at 20OC
The 4 Main Constituents of Developer:
Reducing agent: metol / hydroquinone

Accelerator: keeps solution alkaline
Restrainer: ensures only sensitised
silver halides converted
Preservative: prevents oxidation by air
Developer
In order to increase the working life of the developer
replenisher should be added in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations.
Replenisher replaces used reducing agent and

maintains alkalinity. It also maintains the depth of
developer in the processing tank (during processing
there are losses due to carry-over and evaporation).
Keeping a record of how much film has been processed

helps in deciding how much replenisher to add.
Film Processing
Stop Bath:
3% Acetic acid neutralises the developer, stops the

development process and increases fixer life
It is common to add an indicator to the stop bath to confirm

it’s acidity.
The stop bath should always be held at approximately the

same temperature as the developer & fixer as sudden
temperature changes can damage the film emulsion
A soaking time in the stop bath of just a few seconds is

sufficient to arrest development and neutralise alkalinity
Film Processing
Fixer:
A solution of sodium thiosulphate or ammonium
thiosulphate.
Fixer is mildly acidic (acetic acid stabilises the solution).
Unexposed, undeveloped silver halides are leached out of
the film emulsion.
Fixer commonly contains a hardener. This helps to promote
rapid even drying, it also makes the wet film easier to
handle.
Fixing time is generally taken to be twice the “clearing
time” but should not exceed 4 minutes. Leaving film in
fixer for a an extended period may cause the film emulsion
to peel away from the base.
Fixer
Like Developer fixer may be replenished.
When unexposed film is placed in the fixer bath it will
be observed to “clear” as the silver halides are
dissolved by the fixer. “Clearing time” is an important
measure of fixer condition. Clearing time for new fixer
will usually be less than 30 seconds. Fixer will usually
be replaced when the clearing time exceeds 2 minutes.
Radiographs are usually fixed for a time equal to twice
the clearing time.
Fixer contains a hardener which helps to prevent
swelling of the film emulsion and accelerate drying.
Fixer
During the fixing process large

amounts of silver accumulate in the
fixer solution.
Therefore it is common practice to
recover silver from spent fixer.
Film Processing
Washing:
20 - 30 mins (in clean running water)
Usually followed by dipping in a clean water bath

containing a wetting agent which helps to promote even
drying.
NOTE: OVERWASHING MUST BE AVOIDED

Overwashing will cause swelling and excessive softening
of the film emulsion, a major cause of “drying marks”.
Insufficiently washed radiographs will discolour and their

shelf life will be limited.
Film Density
The DEGREE OF DARKENING of a processed film is
called FILM DENSITY.
Film Density is a logarithmic unit:
Where I1 is the incident light intensity and I2 is the

transmitted light intensity
Thus if Film Density = 2, the incident light intensity is

100x greater than the transmitted intensity
Characteristic Curves
• Increasing exposures are applied to successive
areas of a film
• After development the film density is measured
• The density is then plotted against the log of
the relative exposure
The resultant graph is called the

“Characteristic Curve”
or
“Sensiometric Curve”
or
“Hunter-Driffield Curve”
The relationship
between exposure time
and resultant film
density is non-linear
The gradient of the

film characteristic
curve is a measure of
film contrast
Film A is coarse grain
& is faster than
Film B & C
Film B is fine grain

and it’s speed is
intermediate
between Film A & C
Film C is ultra-fine
grain and is the
slowest of the three
A “fast” film requires

a shorter exposure
time than a “slow”
film
1.63 - 1.31 = 0.32 Antilog 0.32 = 2.1
Original Exposure = 10 mAmin
Using D7 Film a
New Exposure = 2.1 X 10 = 21 mAmin density of 1.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin
What exposure is
required to achieve a
density of 2.5?
2.07 - 1.63 = 0.44 Antilog 0.44 = 2.75
New Exposure = 2.75 X 10 = 27.5 mAmin
Using D7 Film a
density of 2.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin
What exposure is
density of 2.5 using
MX film?
Radiographic Techniques
• Single Wall Single Image(SWSI)
• Double Wall Single Image(DWSI)
• Double Wall Double Image(DWDI)

RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
Radiographic Techniques
Radiographic Technique
Identification
• Unique identification
Identification
• Pitch markers
(Location markers)
Identification
• Pitch markers
• IQI’s
FACTORS AFFECTING EXPOSURE
Specimen Radiographic
• Material type • Film speed
• Thickness • Quality of radiation
• FFD or SFD
• Screens
• Filters
• Development
• Density required
• Intensity of Radiation
Exposure Charts
Exposure Charts
Exposure Calculations
Radiographic Equivalence Chart
50kV 100kV 150kV 220kV 400kV
Mg 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.08
Al 1 1 0.12 0.08
Ti 0.45 0.35
Cu 18 1.6 1.4 1.4
Steel 12 1 1 1
Zn 1.4 1.3 1.3
Exposure Calculation
Film Speed Chart
D7 D5 D4
Agfa
CX AX MX
Kodak
150 100 80
Fuji
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
Relative Exposure
Change of Film: e.g.: from CX to MX
Original Exposure 4 mins
Film factor for CX 2.5
Film factor for MX 10
New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins

2.5
Change of FFD
Original Exposure 4 mins
Original FFD 1000 mm
New FFD 750 mm
Localisation
• 90 degree
• Tube shift
• Lead marker
• Stereo Radiographic
Localisation
• Increasing exposures are applied to successive
areas of a film
• After development the film density is measured
• The density is then plotted against the log of
the relative exposure
The resultant graph is called the

“Characteristic Curve”
or
“Sensiometric Curve”
or
“Hunter-Driffield Curve”
The relationship
between exposure time
and resultant film
density is non-linear
The gradient of the film

characteristic curve is
a measure of film
contrast
• Film A is coarse grain
& is faster than Film
B&C
• Film B is fine grain
and it’s speed is
intermediate
between Film A & C
• Film C is ultra-fine
grain and is the
slowest of the three
• A “fast” film requires
a shorter exposure
time than a “slow”
film
1.63 - 1.31 = 0.32 Antilog 0.32 = 2.1
Using D7 Film a
New Exposure = 2.1 X 10 = 21 mAmin density of 1.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin
What exposure is
density of 2.5?
2.07 - 1.63 = 0.44 Antilog 0.44 = 2.75
New Exposure = 2.75 X 10 = 27.5 mAmin
Using D7 Film a
density of 2.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin
What exposure is
density of 2.5 using
MX film?
RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
• The ability of a radiograph to detect a small change
in section thickness.
Affected by :
• Definition: the degree of sharpness of a
radiographic image
&
• Contrast: the degree to which two adjacent areas
of different film density can be distinguished one
from the other.
Factors Influencing Sensitivity
• Metal Usually Pb - Intensification factor about

2x for radiation energies in excess of 120 keV
• Salt - Intensification factor may be as high as
500x
• Fluorometallic - Intensification factor about
50x
Scatter
• Radiation originating from any source
other than the “primary” source
• Scatter is a major contributor to poor
radiographic contrast and definition.
• Scatter also cause radiological
protection problems
Scatter
• Internal scatter originating within the specimen

• Side scatter walls and nearby objects in the path of the
primary beam
• Back scatter materials located behind the film
Scatter
• Internal scatter originating within the
specimen
Scatter
• Side scatter walls and nearby objects in the path
of the primary beam
Scatter
• Back scatter materials located behind the film
SCATTER
Control of Scatter
• Collimation
• Protection from back scatter
• Beam filtration
• Blocking
• Grids
• Increased beam energy
Radiography 4
Quality
Radiographic Quality
• Density
• Contrast
• Definition
• IQI
Film Density
The DEGREE OF DARKENING of a processed film is
called FILM DENSITY.
Film Density is a logarithmic unit:
Where I1 is the incident light intensity and I2 is the transmitted

light intensity
Thus if Film Density = 2, the incident light intensity is 100x

greater than the transmitted intensity
Radiographic Density
Lack of Density Excessive Density

• Under exposure • Over exposure
• Developer temp too • Excessive
low development
• Exhausted developer • Developer temp too
• Developer too weak high
• Too strong a solution
The ability to differentiate
• Density areas of different film
density
• Contrast
Radiographic Contrast
Insufficient Contrast Excessive Contrast

• kV too high • kV too low
• Over exposure • Incorrect developer
compensated for by
shortened
development
• Incorrect film - screen
combination
Density The sharpness of the

Contrast dividing line between
Definition different density fields
Abbreviated as Ug
Ug= f (ofd)
fod
Geometric Unsharpness
Long Film to Object Distance
Short Film to Object Distance
Small Focus
Large Focus
Short Object to Film Distance
Long Object to Film Distance
• Source size as small as possible
• Source to object distance as long as
possible
• Object to film distance as small as possible
• In a good quality technique geometric
unsharpness should be less than the
inherent unsharpness of the film - screen
combination in use
Image Quality Indicators
• Image Quality Indicators
or
• Penetrameters are used to measure

radiographic sensitivity and the quality
of the radiographic technique used
• BS EN 462-1 Wire Type IQIs
• BS EN 462-2 Step-Hole Type IQIs
• Sensitivity is usually expressed as a
percentage of “subject thickness”.
• For single wall single image and double
wall single image techniques the single
wall thickness is generally taken as
“subject thickness”.
• For double wall double image techniques
the double wall thickness is used.
Where:
T = Subject Thickness
&
t = Thickness of thinnest discernible wire or step
• IQIs should wherever possible be placed
“source side”.
• For the double wall single image technique
this is not possible and IQIs are therefore
placed “film side”.
• Different requirements apply dependent on
whether the IQI is source or film side.
• It is good practice to place IQIs towards the
ends of the diagnostic area
Radiation Safety
Principles
• Justification
• Optimisation ALARP
• Limitation
Radiation Safety
Units of Dose
• Gray
The amount of
radiation that will
deposit 1 joule of
energy/kg of
absorber
Radiation Safety
Units of Dose
• Gray • Quality Factor
The amount of The degree of

radiation that will biological damage
deposit 1 joule of caused by a quantity
energy/kg of of radiation
absorber
Radiation Safety
Units of Dose
• Gray • Quality Factor
The amount of The degree of

radiation that will biological damage
deposit 1 joule of caused by a quantity
energy/kg of of radiation
absorber
Sievert: Radiobiological effectiveness
Grays x QF
Radiation Safety
Safe Working
• Controlled Area
Any area in which the
dose will exceed
3/10th annual dose for
employees aged 18 or
over
7.5Svh-1: maximum
dose rate at the
barrier
Radiation Safety
Safe Working
• Controlled Area
Any area in which the • Supervised Area
dose will exceed
3/10th annual dose for Any area in which the dose
employees aged 18 or rate will exceed 1/3rd that
over of controlled area
7.5Svh-1: maximum
dose rate at the
barrier
Shielding
The intensity of radiation is reduced
by absorption as is passes through
matter
Half Value Layer

The thickness of any material that
will reduce the radiation intensity
to one half its initial value
Radiation Safety
Calculating Safe Distances
 D1  2
 R1   D2   R2
2
D1= Original Distance

D2= Required Distance
R1= Original Dose Rate
R2= Required Dose Rate
Radiation Safety
 D1  2
 R1   D2   R2
2
D2 
 D1  2
 R1
R2
Radiation Safety
D2 
 D1  2
 R1
R2
Dose Rate at 1m (ALSO CALLED OUTPUT)

• Co 60 13 mGy/hr/Ci
• Ir 192 4.8 mGy/hr/Ci
• Yb 169 1.25 mGy/hr/Ci
Radiation Safety
Calculating Safe Distances:
e.g. For 20 Ci of Co60
D2 
1 13mGy / hr / Ci  20Ci 1000 1
7.5 Sv/hr
Safe Distance = 186.2m

Radiation Safety
Personnel
• RPA: Radiation Protection Advisor
• RPS: Radiation Protection Supervisor
• Classified Persons
• Trainee
• Others
Radiation Safety
Monitoring
• Ionisation Chamber
• Geiger Muller Tube
• Scintillation Counter
• Film badge
• Thermo-Luminescent Dosimeter (TLD)
• Quartz Fibre Electroscope
• Audible Monitors (personal monitor)
Radiation Safety
• Ionisation Chamber
When the gas is
ionised a current
can flow through
the chamber.
The magnitude of
the current is
related to the
intensity of
ionising radiation.
AMMETER
Welding Terminology
Butt Joints
Square Edged
Closed Open
Single Sided Butt

Vee Bevel
Double Sided Butt

Vee Bevel
Welding Terminology
Fillet Joints
Tee Lap
Corner
A Weld : Definitions
BS 499 NASA
• A union between • A continuous defect
pieces of metal at surrounded by parent
faces rendered plastic material
or liquid by
heat,pressure or both.
Welds
An ideal weld must give a strong bond between
materials with the interfaces disappearing
To achieve this
• Smooth,flat or matching surfaces
• Surfaces shall be free from contaminants
• Metals shall be free from impurities
• Metals shall have identical crystalline structures
Welding
A union between pieces of metal at faces
rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources
•Ultrasonics
•Electron beam
•Friction
•Electric resistance
•Electric arc
Electric Arc Welding
Electrode
Power
supply
Work piece
Clamp(Earth)
• Electric discharge produced between cathode and
anode by a potential difference (40 to 60 volts)
• Discharge ionises air and produces -ve electrons

and +ve ions
• Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon cathode

• Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to
heat (7000o C) and light
• Amperage controls number of ions and electrons,

Voltage controls their velocity
Arc Welding Processes
• Manual metal arc
• Tungsten Inert Gas
• Metal Inert Gas
• Submerged Arc
Differences between them:
• Methods of shielding the arc

• Consumable or Non-consumable electrode
• Degree of automation
Zones in Fusion Welds
• Parent Material or Base Metal
• Heat Affected Zone
• Fusion Zone
Manual Metal Arc Welding
• Shielding provided by Welder controls

decomposition of flux • Arc length
covering
• Angle of electrode
• Electrode consumable • Speed of travel
• Manual process • Amperage settings
Manual Metal
Consumable
Arc (MMA)
electrode
Flux
coating
Arc
Evolved gas
shield
Slag Core wire
Parent metal
Weld metal
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Gas nozzle
Non-
Filler wire consumable
tungsten
electrode
Gas shield
Arc
Parent metal Weld metal

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Gas nozzle Reel feed
Consumable
electrode(filler wire)
Gas shield
Arc
Parent metal Weld metal

Submerged Arc
Submerged Arc
Flux Consumable
retrieval electrode
Reel feed
Slag Flux feed
Weld metal Parent metal

Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by Position
•HAZ
Classified by Shape •Centreline
• Longitudinal •Crater
•Fusion zone
• Transverse •Parent metal
• Branched
• Chevron
Welding Defects
Cracks
4 Crack Types
• Solidification cracks
• Hydrogen induced cracks
• Lamellar tearing
• Reheat cracks
Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification
• Occurs during weld solidification process
• Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility at
elevated temperature)
• Requires high tensile stress
• Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
• e.g. Crater cracking
Welding Defects
Solidification
Solidification Cracking
Cracking
Welding Defects
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced
• Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and
hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters via welding arc
• Hydrogen source - atmosphere or contamination of
preparation or electrode
• Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
• Most likely in HAZ
Welding Defects
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Cracking
Cracking
Welding Defects
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
• Step like appearance
• Occurs in parent material or HAZ
• Only in rolled direction of the parent material
• Associated with restrained joints subjected to
through thickness stresses on corners, tees and
fillets
• Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions
Welding Defects
Lamellar Tearing
Restraint
High
contractional
stress
Lamellar tear
Welding Defects
Cracks
Re-Heat Cracking
• Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during
post weld heat treatment or service at elevated
temperatures
• Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects
• Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor
profile material selection and controlled post weld
heat treatment
Welding Defects
Incomplete root penetration
Causes
• Too large or small a root gap
• Arc too long
• Wrong polarity
• Electrode too large for joint
preparation
• Incorrect electrode angle
• Too fast a speed of travel for
current
Welding Defects
Incomplete root Fusion
Causes
• Too small a root gap
• Arc too long
• Wrong polarity
• Electrode too large for joint
preparation
• Too fast a speed of travel for
current
Welding Defects
Root concavity
Causes
• Root gap too large
• Insufficient arc energy
• Excessive back purge TIG
Welding Defects
Excess Root Penetration
Causes
• Excessive amperage during welding of root
• Excessive root gap (poor fit up)
• Excessive root grinding
• Improper welding technique
Welding Defects
Root undercut
Causes
• Root gap too large
• Excessive arc energy
• Small or no root face
Welding Defects
Cap Undercut
Causes
• Excessive welding current
• Welding speed too high
• Excessive weave
• Electrode too large
Welding Defects
Lack of fusion
Causes
• Contaminated weld preparation
• Amperage too low
• Amperage too high (welder increases speed of
travel)
Welding Defects
Incompletely Filled Groove
& Lack of Side wall Fusion
• Causes
• Insufficient weld metal deposited
Welding Defects
Inter run Incompletely Filled Groove
Causes
• Insufficient weld metal deposited
Welding Defects
Gas pores / Porosity
Causes
• Excessive moisture in flux or preparation
• Contaminated preparation
• Low welding current
• Arc length too long
• Damaged electrode flux
• Removal of gas shield
Welding Defects
Inclusions - Slag
Causes
• Insufficient cleaning between passes
• Contaminated weld preparation
• Welding over irregular profile
• Incorrect welding speed
• Arc length too long
Welding Defects
Inclusions - Tungsten
Causes
• Contamination of weld Caused by tungsten touching
weld metal or parent metal during welding using the
TIG welding process
Welding Defects
Burn Through
Causes
• Excessive amperage during welding of root
• Excessive root grinding
Welding Defects
Spatter
Causes
• Excessive arc energy
• Excessive arc length
• Damp electrodes
• Arc blow
Welding Defects
Arc Strikes
Causes
• Electrode straying onto

parent metal
• Electrode holder with

poor insulation
• Poor contact of earth

clamp
Welding Defects
Mechanical Damage
Chisel
Chisel Marks
Marks Pitting Corrosion Grinding Marks
Interpretation of Radiographs
150 kV X-Ray Agfa D7
Radiographic Details
Source of Film Type

Radiation
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 450
Technique SWSI Development Standard
TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01

Reference No. 097-200 Material Carbon Steel
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 10

Thickness
Process SMAW
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter N/A
Film Density (a) Weld

1.4 (b) Parent
Material
2.7
IQI Type
None No. of wires or steps visible
N/ A
Sensitivity calculation in full
N/ A
The film density is less than 2.0. No IQI present. No

identification or location markers present. A reshoot is
required.
1. Crater crack, 85 from datum 3 long

2. Tool mark, 90 from datum.
3. Undercut, 125 from datum, 35 long (intermittent).
4. Wormholes & porosity, 145 from datum, 30 long.
Radiographic Details
Source of 180 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7

Radiation
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 400
Technique DWSI Development Standard

TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01

Reference No. 097-201 Material Carbon Steel
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 8

Thickness
Process SMAW
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter 324 mm
Film Density (a) Weld

1.2 (b) Parent
Material
1.7
IQI Type
10ISO16 No. of wires or steps visible
2
Sensitivity calculation in full
0.32/ 8 x 100 = 4%
The film density is less than 2.0. The sensitivity is greater than
2%. No identification or location markers present. The IQI is
cannot be properly identified. A reshoot is required.
1. Suspected LORF, difficult to interpret due to thickness

change. 0 - 75 mm.
2. Porosity. Datum + 120, 45 mm long.
3. Lack of penetration, 2 sections 110-130
& 145-168mm
4. Undercut (cap), intermittent full length, both weld
toes.
1. Transverse crack (probably caused by Cu pick-up.

2. Scattered pores / wormholes & small slag
inclusions.
3. Intermittent minor cap undercut.
1. Linear porosity indicating lack of fusion.

1. Tungsten Inclusion.
1. Lack of fusion.
2. Cap undercut.
3. Dense metal inclusions.
1. Linear slag inclusions indicating lack of

fusion.
2. Weld spatter.
1. Crack, probably solidification crack.

1. Lack of root penetration.

2. Burn through.
3. Undercut.
4. Uneven penetration bordering excessive,
full length.

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Radiographic Inspection

• Directly produces a permanent record

• Travels at the speed of light

X & GAMMA RAYS

• X - Rays • Gamma Rays

• Positively charged nucleus surrounded by

Nucleus composed of protons and

• Protons : have positive charge

Protons and Neutrons

• Atoms of an element having the same atomic

Gamma particles (or photons): 

  

• Half LifeTime taken for the activity of

• X-rays are produced when a high velocity

Focusing cup concentrates

• Electrons travel for only short distances

• Tube current • Tube voltage

Un-sensitised : Stable Sensitised : Unstable

During exposure a “latent image” is formed by

• Silver Bromide crystals are not perfect, they

Coarse Fast Poor

Medium Medium Medium

Fine Slow Good

Ultra Fine V.Slow V.Good

• Metallic - Usually lead, but other metals

• The optimum thickness of such screens varies with radiation

• The front screen reduces the effect of radiation scattered by

• The back screen reduces the effect of radiation scattered by

• Developer - reducing agent

The 4 Main Constituents of Developer:

Reducing agent: metol / hydroquinone

Replenisher replaces used reducing agent and

Keeping a record of how much film has been processed

3% Acetic acid neutralises the developer, stops the

It is common to add an indicator to the stop bath to confirm

The stop bath should always be held at approximately the

A soaking time in the stop bath of just a few seconds is

During the fixing process large

20 - 30 mins (in clean running water)

Usually followed by dipping in a clean water bath

NOTE: OVERWASHING MUST BE AVOIDED

Insufficiently washed radiographs will discolour and their

Where I1 is the incident light intensity and I2 is the

Thus if Film Density = 2, the incident light intensity is

The resultant graph is called the

The gradient of the

Film B is fine grain

A “fast” film requires

• Single Wall Single Image(SWSI)

• Double Wall Single Image(DWSI)

• Double Wall Double Image(DWDI)

New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins

The resultant graph is called the

The gradient of the film

• Metal Usually Pb - Intensification factor about

• Internal scatter originating within the specimen

Film Density is a logarithmic unit:

Where I1 is the incident light intensity and I2 is the transmitted

Thus if Film Density = 2, the incident light intensity is 100x