Industrial Instrumentation

Lecture no. 3

Performance Characteristics
of Instruments
 Contents

 Introduction to Performance Characteristics
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
 Statistical Analysis

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 Introduction

The detailed specifications of the functional
characteristics of any instruments are termed as its
performance characteristics.

 These are the indicative of the capabilities and

limitations of the instrument for a particular service.
 The knowledge of performance characteristics is
important as it enables us to have quantitative
estimates of the positive as well as negative points of
various commercially available instruments.

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 • Static Characteristics


In situations where the desired input to

the instrument is constant or varying
slowly with respect to time, the static
characteristics are good enough to give
meaningful quantitative description of
the instrument.

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• Dynamic Characteristics


If the desired input is not constant, but

varies rapidly with time, the dynamic
characteristics of the instruments should
also be known to judge the performance
of an instrument.

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Static Calibration


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 Static Calibration

 A test in which known values of the input are applied to
a sensor (measurement system) for the purpose of
observing the sensor (system) output. The input-output
relation is called “Calibration curve”.
 All inputs (desired, interfering and modifying) except
one are kept at some constant values. Then the input
under study is varied over some range of constant
values.
 The input-output relationship is valid under the stated
constant conditions of all the other inputs.

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 Steps in Static Calibration

1. Examine the construction of the instrument and
identify and list all the possible inputs.
2. Decide which of the inputs will be significant in the
application for which the instrument is to be calibrated.
3. Procure apparatus that will allow you to vary all the
significant inputs over the ranges considered
necessary. Procure standards to measure each input.
4. By holding some inputs constant, varying others, and
recording the output(s), develop the desired static
input-output relations.

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Static Characteristics


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 Accuracy

The accuracy of a measurement system is the
degree of closeness of measurements of a
quantity to that quantity's actual (true) value. .

A measurement system is called valid if it is

both accurate and precise.

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 Precision

The precision of a
measurement system is
the degree to which
repeated measurements
under unchanged
conditions show the
same results.

Also called:
 Repeatability
 Reproducibility

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 Repeatability

The closeness of agreement among a number of
consecutive measurements of the output for the
same value of the input under the same
operating conditions, approaching from the
same direction.

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 Mistakes

 Introduced due to human activities
 Careless reading
 Mistakes in recording observations
 Incorrect application of a correction
 Improper application of instruments
 Computational errors
 Can be avoided only by taking care in reading and
recording the measurement data.
 At least three independent reading should be taken,
preferably under conditions in which instruments are
switched off and on.

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 Error

Numerical difference between true value of a quantity
and its value as obtained by a measurement.

 GROSS ERROR:
Typical mistakes include reading the wrong numbers
from a tape measure, making a measurement with the
tape snagged around some structure or reading the
wrong values from a form when processing the
measurements. Gross errors are sometimes called
blunders.

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 SYSTEMATIC ERROR:

Systematic errors are ones that can be repeated and can be
accounted for in processing. If you calibrate a tape measure
against a known standard and find that it always measures
distances that are too long, the difference is a systematic error
and can be removed when the measurements are processed.
1. Instrumental error
Error inherent in instrument due to the mechanical structure
 Friction in springs and bearings
 Irregular spring tension
 Overloading of instrument
2. Environmental error
Conditions external to the instrument.
 Temperature, humidity, magnetic or electric fields
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 Sources of Error

 Insufficient knowledge of the process
parameters and design conditions
 Poor design
 Change in process parameters,
irregularities, upsets, etc.
 Poor maintenance
 Error caused by people who operate
instrument equipment
 Certain design limitations

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 Range

Range:
The lowest and highest reading an instrument can
measure. E.g., a thermometer is calibrated from 0
-100 ºC has a range of 0 - 100 ºC.

Span:
The algebraic difference between the upper and
lower range values. The thermometer calibrated
from 0 - 100 ºC has a span of 100 ºC.
 Also called “Full scale output”

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 Output

Full scale output:
The upper limit of output over the input range is
called the full scale (FS)

Offset:
The output of a transducer, under room
temperature condition unless otherwise specified,
with zero input applied.

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 Dead Zone

Dead zone (dead spot) is the largest range of
values of a measured variable to which the
instrument does not respond.

 Dead Zone usually occurs with friction in an indicating

or recording instrument.

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 Sensitivity

  
Incremental ratio of the output signal (y) to
the desired input signal (x).

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

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 Linearity

The closeness to which a curve approximates a
straight line.
A measure of deviation from linear of the sensor,
usually descried in terms of the percentage of FSO.
a) Best-fit straight line
b) Terminal-based straight line
c) Independent straight line

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a) Best-fit straight line
Least square method:
Minimizes the sum of the
square of the vertical
deviations of the data
points from the fitted line.

Best approximation of the given

values

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b) Terminal Base line: c) Independent Straight
Line:
Join the initial and final Centre line based on the
values. maximum and minimum
deviation.
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 Resolution (Least Count)

The least interval between two adjacent discrete
details which can be distinguished from one
another.
 One of the major factors influencing the
resolution of an instrument is how finely its
output scale is divided into subdivisions. This
means that when the needle is between the
scale markings, we cannot estimate output
more accurately.

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 Hysteresis (Backlash)

The non-coincidence of loading
and unloading curves
 Internal friction of stressed
parts (mainly the spring)
 External sliding friction e.g.
 Free play
 Looseness in the
mechanism of an
instrument

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 Static Error

The numerical difference between the true
value of a quantity and its value as obtained
by measurement.

Repeated measurements of the same quantity

give different indications.

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 Drift

Drift is an undesired change or a gradual variation in
output over a period of time that is unrelated to
changes in input, operating conditions, or load.
 Point drift
By maintaining exact operating and load conditions and monitoring
output variations for a fixed input signal, as a function of time.
 Calibration Drift
By keeping input signal, operating conditions and load
approximately constant, and comparing calibration curves at the
beginning and at specified intervals of time.

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Dynamic Characteristics


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 Introduction

 Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the
instrument when the input variable is changing rapidly
with time.
 For example, human eye cannot detect any event whose
duration is less than one tenth of a second; thus, the
dynamic performance of human eye cannot be said to be
very satisfactory.
 The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally
expressed by a differential equation relating the input and
output quantities. It is always convenient to express the
input-output dynamic characteristics in form of a linear
differential equation.
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 Offset

The steady state deviation when the set point is
fixed is called offset.
It is the reading of the instrument with zero input.
If it is deliberately set, it is called “Bias”

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 Speed of Response

It is the rapidity with which an instrument
responds to changes in the measured quantity.

 The speed of response gives the information about how

fast the system responds to the change in inputs i.e.,
compatibility of device with fast varying inputs.

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 Dynamic Error

It is the difference between the true value of a quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the
instrument.

 Dynamic errors are caused by the inertial properties

of measuring instruments.

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 Fidelity

Fidelity is the ability to reproduce the changes in
input signal faithfully.

 Fidelity ~ Repeatability (Static Characteristic)

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 Lag

It is a retardation or delay in the response
of an instrument to changes in the
measured quantity.

Every measuring device has some definite

delay. Because of lag, the output response
along the time axis may be delayed.

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Statistical Analysis


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 Introduction

Statistical analysis of measurement data is done
for an analytical analysis of the uncertainty of
the final test result

 A large number of measurements is required

 Systematic errors should be small

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 Arithmetic Mean

 
Arithmetic mean of n measurements at specific
count of the variable x is given by:

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 Deviation

The departure of a given reading from the
arithmetic mean of the group of readings.
The deviation from the mean can be expressed by:

d n = xn – x

The algebraic sum of all the deviations must be zero.

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Thank You


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