Machine foundation

INTRODUCTION
• Foundations subjected to static loads have been discussed in
the preceding chapters.
• In some cases, the foundations are subjected to dynamic loads.
• These loads may result from various causes such as vibratory
motion of machines, movement of vehicles, impact of
hammers, earthquakes, winds, waves, nuclear blasts, mine
explosions, and pile driving.
• The dynamic loads transmitted to the foundations and their
effect on the strata below can be determined using the
principles of soil dynamics and theory of vibrations. The
analysis is, however, very complex.
• Machine foundations are subjected to the dynamic forces
caused by the machine.
• These dynamic forces are transmitted to the foundation
supporting the machine.
• Although the moving parts of the machine are generally
balanced, there is always some unbalance in practice which
causes an eccentricity of rotating parts. This produces an
oscillating force.
• The machine foundation must satisfy the criteria for
dynamic loading, in addition to that for static loading
already discussed.
• Basically, there are three types of machines:
• (i) Machines which produce a periodic unbalanced force, such as
reciprocating engines and compressors. The speed such machines
is generally less than 600 r.p.m. In these machines, the rotary
motion of the crank is converted into the translatory motion. The
unbalanced force varies sinusoidally.
• (ii) Machines which produce impact loads, such as forge hammers
and punch presses. In these machines, the dynamic force attains
a peak value in a very short time and then dics out gradually. The
response is a pulsating curve. It vanishes before the next pulse.
The speed is usually between 60 to 150 blows per minute.
• (iii) High speed machines, such as turbines and rotary
compressors. The speed of such machines is very high;
sometimes, it is even more than 3000 r.p.m. This chapter is
devoted mainly to the design of foundation for machines of the
first type.
• TYPES OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
• The following 4 types of machine foundations
are commonly used.
• (1) Block Type. This type of machine
foundation consists of a pedestal resting on a
footing. The foundation has a large mass and a
small natural frequency.
• (2) Box Type.
• The foundation consists of a hollow concrete
block. The mass of the foundation is less than
that in the block type and the natural
frequency is increased.
• (3) Wall Type.
• A wall type of foundation consists of a pair of
walls having a top slab. The machine rests on
the top slab
• (4) Framed Type.
• This type of foundation consists of vertical
columns having a horizontal frame at their
tops. The machine is supported on the frame
Suitability of various types. Machines which produce
periodical and impulsive forces at low speeds are
generally provided with a block type foundation.
Framed type foundations are generally used for the
machines working at high speeds and for those of
the rotating types.
Some machines which induce very little dynamic
forces, such as lathes, need not be provided with a
machine foundation. Such machines may be directly
bolted to the floor.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
• The following terms are used in the dynamic analysis of
machine foundations.
• (1) Vibration (or oscillation). It is the time-dependent,
repeated motion of translational or rotational type.
• (2) Periodic motion. It is the motion which repeats itself
periodically in equal time intervals.
• (3) Period (T). The time period in which the motion repeats
itself is called the period of motion or simply period.
• (4) Cycle. The motion completed in the period is called the
cycle of motion.
• 5) Frequency
• The number of cycles of motion in a unit of
time is known as the frequency of vibration.
• It is usually expressed in hertz (I.e. cycles per
second).
• The period (T) and the frequency (f) are inter-
related as T=1/f
• Circular frequency (ω) is in radians per second.
• (6) Free vibration. Free vibrations occur under the
influence of forces inherent in the system itself, without
any external force. However, to start free vibrations, some
external force or natural disturbance is required. Once
started, the vibration continue without an external force.
• (7) Forced vibration. Forced vibrations occur under the
influence of a continuous external force.
• (8) Natural frequency. The system under free vibrations
vibrates at the frequency known as natural frequency.
The natural frequency is the characteristic of the system.
A system may have more than one natural frequency.
• (9) Resonance. When the frequency of the exciting
force is equal to one of the natural frequencies of the
system, the amplitudes of motion become excessively
large. This condition is known as resonance.
• 10. Damping. The resistance to motion which develops
due to friction and other causes is known as damping.
• Viscous damping is a type of damping in which the
damping force is proportional to the velocity.
• It is expressed as
• (11) Degree of Freedom. The number of independent co-
ordinates required to describe the motion of a system is called
the degree of freedom.
• Fig. (a) shows a system with one degree of freedom, and Fig.
(b) shows a system with two degrees of freedom.
• An elastic rod has an infinite degree of freedom. However, for
convenience, the rod is divided into segments. The degree of
freedom is made finite by considering the masses of these
segments.
• (12) Principal modes of vibrations.
• A system with more than one degree of freedom
vibrates in complex modes. However, if each
point in the system follows a definite pattern of
common natural frequency, the mode is
systematic and orderly and is known as the
principal mode of vibration.
• A system with a degrees of freedom has n
principal modes and hence n natural frequencies.
GENERAL CRITERIA FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE
FOUNDATIONS
• A good machine foundation should satisfy the following
criteria.
• (1) Like ordinary foundations, it should be safe against
shear failure caused by superimposed loads, and also the
settlements should be within the safe limits. The soil
pressure should normally not exceed 80% of the allowable
pressure for static loading.
• (2) There should be no possibility of resonance. The
natural frequency of the foundation should be either
greater than or smaller than the operating frequency of
the machine.
• (3) The amplitudes under service conditions should
be within the permissible limits for the machine.
• (4) The combined centre of gravity of the machine
and the foundation should be on the vertical line
passing through the centre of gravity of the base
plane.
• (5) Machine foundation should be taken to a level
lower than the level of the foundation of the
adjacent buildings. and should separated. be
properly
• 6) The vibrations induced should neither be
annoying to the persons nor detrimental to
other structures. Richart (1962) developed a
plot for vertical vibration, which is generally
taken as a guide for various limits of frequency
and amplitude (Fig. 28.4).
• 7) The depth of the ground-water table should
be at least one-fourth of the width of the
foundation below the base plane
 VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF A MACHINE
FOUNDATION
• Although a machine foundation has 6 degree of
freedom, it is assumed to have a single degree of
freedom for a simplified analysis.
• Fig. 28.9 shows a machine foundation supported on
a soil mass. In this case, the mass mf of the system
lumps together the mass of the machine and the
mass of foundation.
• The total mass mf acts at the centre of gravity of the
system. The mass is under the supporting action of
the soil. The elastic action can be lumped together
into a single elastic spring with a stiffness k.
• Likewise, all the resistance to motion is lumped into the
damping coefficient c. Thus the machine foundation
reduces to a single mass having one degree of freedom,
as shown in Fig. 28.7.
• The analysis of damped, forced vibration, discussed in
Sect. 28.7, is, therefore, applicable to the machine
foundation.
• Determination of Parameters. For vibration analysis of a
machine foundation, the parameters m, c and k are
required. These parameters can be determined as under.
• (1) Mass (m). When a machine vibrates, some portion of the
supporting soil mass also vibrates. The vibrating soil mass is known
as the participating mass or in-phase soil mass. Therefore, the total
mass of the system is equal to the mass of the foundation block
and machine (mf) and the mass (ms) of the participating soil. Thus
• M=mf+ms
• Unfortunately, there is no rational method to determine the
magnitude of ms.
• It is usually related to the mass of the soil in the pressure bulb. The
value of ms generally varies between zero and mf.
• In other words, the total mass (m) varies between mf and 2 mf in
most cases.
• (2) Spring stiffness (k). The spring stiffness depends upon the type
of soil, embedment of the foundation block, the contact area and
the contact pressure distribution. The following methods are
commonly used.
• (a) Laboratory test. A triaxial test with vertical vibrations is
conducted to determine Young's modulus E. Alternatively, the
modulus of rigidity (G) is determined by conducting the test
under torsional vibration, and E is obtained indirectly from the
relation E = 2 G (1+u), where is Poisson's ratio.
• The stiffness (k) is determined as k=AE/L
• where A = cross-sectional area of the specimen, L = length of the
specimen.
• (b) Barkan's method. The stiffness can also be
obtained from the value of E using the
following relation given by Barkan.
• (c) Plate load test. A repeated plate load test is
conducted and the stiffness of the soil in the
test (k) is found as the slope of the load-
deformation curve. The spring constant k of
the foundation is determined asunder.
• (d) Resonance test. The resonance frequency
(f) is obtained using a vibrator of mass m set
up on a steel plate supported on the ground.
The spring stiffness is obtained from the
relation
• (3) Damping constant c. Damping is due to dissipation of
vibration energy, which occurs mainly because of the
following reasons.
• (1) Internal friction loss due to hysterisis and viscous
effects.
• (2) Rational loss due to propagation of waves through soil.
• The damping factor D for an under damped system can be
determined in the laboratory. Vibration response is
plotted and the logarithmic decrement δ is found from
the plot, as
 REINFORCEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION
DETAILS
• (1) The reinforcement in the concrete block should not be
less than 25 kg/m³. For machines requiring special design
consideration of foundations, such as machine pumping
explosive gases, the minimum reinforcement is 40 kg/m³.
• (2) Steel reinforcement around all pits and openings shall
be at least equal to 0.5 to 0.75% of the cross-sectional
area of the pit or opening.
• (3) The reinforcement shall run in all the three directions.
the minimum reinforcement shall usually consist of 12
mm bars at 200 to 250 mm spacing extending both
vertically and horizontally near all faces of the foundation
block. The ends of all bars should always be hooked.
• 4) If the height of the foundation block exceeds one
meter, shrinkage reinforcement shall be placed at
suitable spacing in all the three directions.
• (5) The cover should be a minimum of 75 mm at the
bottom and 50 mm on sides and the top.
• (6) The concrete shall be at least M-15 with a
characteristic strength of 15 N/mm².
• (7) The foundation block should be preferably cast in a
single, continuous operation. In case of very thick blocks
(exceeding 5 m), construction joints can be provided.
 MASS OF FOUNDATION
• Heavy foundations eliminate excessive vibrations.
Manufactures of machines sometimes recommend
the mass of foundation required for the machines.
However, the mass recommended are generally
empirical and based largely on experience.
• Couzens (1938) gave the ratios of foundation mass
to engine mass suitable for various types of
machines (See Table 28.2). These ratios can be
used for rough estimates.
 VIBRATION ISOLATION AND CONTROL
• Vibrations may cause harmful effects on the adjoining structures
and machines. Besides, these vibrations cause annoyance to the
persons working in the area around the machine.
• However, if the frequency ratio is kept outside the critical range
of 0.4 and 1.50, and the amplitude is within the permissible
limits, the harmful effects are considerably reduced, especially if
the system is damped.
• Transmission of vibrations can be controlled and the detrimental
effects considerably reduced by isolating either the source
(active isolation) or by protecting the receiver (passive isolation).
• The following measures are generally adopted.
• (1) The machine foundation should be located away from
the adjoining structures. This is known as geometric
isolation.
The amplitude of surface waves (R-waves= The R wave is the
first upward deflection after the P wave. The R
wave represents early ventricular de polarisation.) reduces
with an increase in distance.
A considerable reduction in the amplitude is achieved by
locating the foundation at a great depth, as the R-waves
also reduce considerably with an increase in depth.
• (2) Additional masses known as dampers are attached
to the foundations of high frequency machines to
make it a multiple degree freedom system and to
change the natural frequency. In reciprocating
machines, the vibrations are considerably reduced by
counterbalancing the exciting forces by attaching
counterweights to the sides of the crank.
• (3) Vibrations are considerably reduced by placing
absorbers, such as rubber mountings, felts and corks
between the machine and the base.
• (4) If an auxiliary mass with a spring is attached
to the machine foundation, the system becomes
a two-degree-freedom system. The method is
especially effective when the system is in
resonance.
• (5) If the strength of soil is increased by
chemical or cement stabilization, it increases the
natural frequency of the system. The method is
useful for machines of low operating frequency.
• (6) The natural frequency of the system is
modified by making structural changes in
foundation, such as connecting the adjoining
foundations, changing the base area or mass
of foundation or use of attached slabs.
• (7) The propagation of waves can be reduced
by providing sheet piles, screens or trenches.