Design and Analysis of

Algorithm

Unit 2: Analysis of Algorithms(I)

Compiled By
Prof. Dharmesh R. Tank
CE\IT Department, LDRP-ITR
 Analysis of Algorithms
• An algorithm is a finite set of precise instructions
for performing a computation or for solving a
problem.
• What is the goal of analysis of algorithms?
– To compare algorithms mainly in terms of running
time but also in terms of other factors (e.g., memory
requirements, programmer's effort etc.)
• What do we mean by running time analysis?
– Determine how running time increases as the size
of the problem increases.
 Input Size
• Input size (number of elements in the input)
– size of an array
– polynomial degree

– # of elements in a matrix
– # of bits in the binary representation of the input

– vertices and edges in a graph

 Types of Analysis
• Worst case
– Provides an upper bound on running time
– An absolute guarantee that the algorithm would not run longer,
no matter what the inputs are
• Best case
– Provides a lower bound on running time
– Input is the one for which the algorithm runs the fastest

Lower Bound  Running Time  Upper Bound

• Average case
– Provides a prediction about the running time
– Assumes that the input is random
 How do we compare algorithms?
• We need to define a number of objective
measures.

(1) Compare execution times?

Not good: times are specific to a particular
computer !!

(2) Count the number of statements executed?

Not good: number of statements vary with
the programming language as well as the style
of the individual programmer.
 Ideal Solution

• Express running time as a function of the

input size n (i.e., f(n)).
• Compare different functions corresponding
to running times.
• Such an analysis is independent of
machine time, programming style, etc.
 Example
• Associate a "cost" with each statement.
• Find the "total cost“ by finding the total number of times
each statement is executed. 
Algorithm 1 Cost Algorithm 2 Cost
arr[0] = 0; c1 for(i=0; i<N; i++) c2
arr[1] = 0; c1 arr[i] = 0; c1
arr[2] = 0; c1
... ...
arr[N-1] = 0; c1 
----------- -------------
=>c1+c1+...+c1 = c1 x N =>(N+1) x c2 + N x c1 =
(c2 + c1) x N + c2
 Another Example

• Algorithm 3 Cost
  sum = 0; c1
for(i=0; i<N; i++) c2
for(j=0; j<N; j++) c2
sum += arr[i][j]; c3
------------
=c1 + c2 x (N+1) + c2 x N x (N+1) + c3 x N2
 Asymptotic Analysis
• To compare two algorithms with running
times f(n) and g(n), we need a rough
measure that characterizes how fast
each function grows.
• Hint: use rate of growth
• Compare functions in the limit, that is,
asymptotically!
(i.e., for large values of n)
 Rate of Growth
• Consider the example of buying elephants and
goldfish:
Cost: cost_of_elephants + cost_of_goldfish
Cost ~ cost_of_elephants (approximation)
• The low order terms in a function are relatively
insignificant for large n
n4 + 100n2 + 10n + 50 ~ n4

i.e., we say that n4 + 100n2 + 10n + 50 and n4

have the same rate of growth
 Asymptotic Notation

• O notation: asymptotic “less than”:

– f(n)=O(g(n)) implies: f(n) “≤” cg(n)

•  notation: asymptotic “greater than”:

– f(n)=  (g(n)) implies: f(n) “≥” cg(n)

•  notation: asymptotic “equality”:

– f(n)=  (g(n)) implies: f(n) “=” g(n)
 Asymptotic Notations
• O-notation
 Big-O / Big-Oh Notation
Given functions f(n) and g(n), we say that
f(n) is O(g(n)) if there are positive constants
c and n0 such that
f(n)  cg(n) for n  n0
• We say fA(n)=30n+8 is order n, or O (n)
It is, at most, roughly proportional to n.
• fB(n)=n2+1 is order n2, or O(n2). It is, at most,
roughly proportional to n2.
• In general, any O(n2) function is faster- growing
than any O(n) function.
 Visualizing Orders of Growth
• On a graph, as
you go to the
right, a faster
growing

Value of function 
function fA(n)=30n+8
eventually
becomes
larger... fB(n)=n2+1

Increasing n 
 Example
Problem: Prove that 2n + 10 is O(n)
Solution:
• 2n + 10 <= cn
• 10<= cn -2n
• (c - 2) n >=10
• n >= 10/(c - 2)
• If we pick c = 3 and n0 = 10, at this value is fall
under Big-O.
 Example
•  
 More Examples

 7n-2 is O(n)
Solution: need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 7n-2  c•n for n  n0
this is true for c = 7 and n0 = 1

Solution: need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 3n3 + 20n2 + 5  c•n3

for n  n0,
this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 21

 3 log n + log log nis O(log n)

Solution: need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 3 log n + log log n  c•log n
for n  n0
this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 2
 Back to Our Example
Algorithm 1 Algorithm 2
Cost Cost
arr[0] = 0; c1 for(i=0; i<N; i++) c2
arr[1] = 0; c1 arr[i] = 0; c1
arr[2] = 0; c1
...
arr[N-1] = 0; c 1 
----------- -------------
c1+c1+...+c1 = c1 x N (N+1) x c2 + N x c1 =
(c2 + c1) x N + c2

• Both algorithms are of the same order: O(N)

 Example (cont’d)

Algorithm 3 Cost
  sum = 0; c1
for(i=0; i<N; i++) c2
for(j=0; j<N; j++) c2
sum += arr[i][j]; c3
------------
c1 + c2 x (N+1) + c2 x N x (N+1) + c3 x N2 = O(N2)
 More Examples …

• n4 + 100n2 + 10n + 50 is O(n4)

• 10n3 + 2n2 is O(n3)
• n3 - n2 is O(n3)
• constants
– 10 is O(1)
– 1273 is O(1)
Big-O Visualization

O(g(n)) is the set of

functions with smaller
or same order of
growth as g(n)
 Examples
– 2n2 = O(n3):
2n2 ≤ cn3  2 ≤ cn  c = 1 and n0= 2
– n2 = O(n2):
n2 ≤ cn2  c ≥ 1  c = 1 and n0= 1
– 1000n2+1000n = O(n2):

1000n2+1000n ≤ 1000n2+ n2 =1001n2 c=1001 and n0 = 1000

– n = O(n2): n ≤ cn2  cn ≥ 1  c = 1 and n0= 1

Show that 30n+8 is O(n).

Show c,n0: 30n+8  cn, n>n0 .
Let c=31, n0=8. Assume n>n0=8. Then
cn = 31n = 30n + n > 30n+8, so 30n+8 < cn.
 Big-O example, graphically
• Note 30n+8 isn’t
less than n
anywhere (n>0).
• It isn’t even cn =
31n 30n+8

Value of function 
less than 31n
everywhere.
• But it is less than
31n everywhere to
30n+8
n
the right of n=8. O(n)
n>n0=8 
Increasing n 
 No Uniqueness
• There is no unique set of values for n0 and c in proving the

asymptotic bounds
• Prove that 100n + 5 = O(n2)
– 100n + 5 ≤ 100n + n = 101n ≤ 101n2

for all n ≥ 5

n0 = 5 and c = 101 is a solution

– 100n + 5 ≤ 100n + 5n = 105n ≤ 105n2
for all n ≥ 1

n0 = 1 and c = 105 is also a solution

Must find SOME constants c and n0 that satisfy the asymptotic notation relation
 Asymptotic notations (cont.)
•  - notation

(g(n)) is the set of functions

with larger or same order of
growth as g(n)
 Examples
– 5n2 = (n)
 c, n0 such that: 0  cn  5n2 cn  5n2  c = 1 and n0 = 1

– 100n + 5 ≠ (n2)
 c, n0 such that: 0  cn2  100n + 5
100n + 5  100n + 5n ( n  1) = 105n
cn2  105n  n(cn – 105)  0
Since n is positive  cn – 105  0  n  105/c
 contradiction: n cannot be smaller than a constant
– n = (2n), n3 = (n2), n = (logn)
 Asymptotic notations (cont.)
• -notation

(g(n)) is the set of functions

with the same order of growth
as g(n)
 Examples
– n2/2 –n/2 = (n2)

• ½ n2 - ½ n ≤ ½ n2 n ≥ 0  c2= ½

• ½ n2 - ½ n ≥ ½ n2 - ½ n * ½ n ( n ≥ 2 ) = ¼ n2 

c1= ¼

– n ≠ (n2): c1 n2 ≤ n ≤ c2 n2

 only holds for: n ≤ 1/c1

 Examples
– 6n3 ≠ (n2): c1 n2 ≤ 6n3 ≤ c2 n2

 only holds for: n ≤ c2 /6

– n ≠ (logn): c1 logn ≤ n ≤ c2 logn

 c2 ≥ n/logn,  n≥ n0 – impossible
 Relations Between Different Sets
• Subset relations between order-of-growth sets.

RR
O( f ) ( f )
•f
( f )
Common orders of magnitude
Common orders of magnitude
 Logarithms and properties
• In algorithm analysis we often use the notation “log n”
without specifying the base

Binary logarithm lg n  log 2 n log x y  y log x

Natural logarithm ln n  log e n log xy  log x  log y
x
lg n  (lg n )
k k
log  log x  log y
y
lg lg n  lg(lg n )
log a
a logb x  x b

log b x  log a x
log a b
 More Examples
• For each of the following pairs of functions, either f(n) is
O(g(n)), f(n) is Ω(g(n)), or f(n) = Θ(g(n)). Determine
which relationship is correct.
– f(n) = log n2; g(n) = log n + 5 f(n) =  (g(n))
– f(n) = n; g(n) = log n2 f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = log log n; g(n) = log n f(n) = O(g(n))
– f(n) = n; g(n) = log2 n f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = n log n + n; g(n) = log n f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = 10; g(n) = log 10 f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = 2n; g(n) = 10n2 f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = 2n; g(n) = 3n f(n) = O(g(n))
 Properties
• Theorem:
f(n) = (g(n))  f = O(g(n)) and f = (g(n))
• Transitivity:
– f(n) = (g(n)) and g(n) = (h(n))  f(n) = (h(n))
– Same for O and 
• Reflexivity:
– f(n) = (f(n))
– Same for O and 
• Symmetry:
– f(n) = (g(n)) if and only if g(n) = (f(n))
• Transpose symmetry:
– f(n) = O(g(n)) if and only if g(n) = (f(n))
 Asymptotic Notations in Equations
• On the right-hand side
– (n2) stands for some anonymous function in (n2)
2n2 + 3n + 1 = 2n2 + (n) means:
There exists a function f(n)  (n) such that
2n2 + 3n + 1 = 2n2 + f(n)
• On the left-hand side
2n2 + (n) = (n2)
No matter how the anonymous function is chosen on
the left-hand side, there is a way to choose the
anonymous function on the right-hand side to make
the equation valid.
 Common Summations
n
n(n  1)
• Arithmetic series:  k  1  2  ...  n 
k 1 2
n
x n 1  1
 x  1  x  x  ...  x 
k 2 n
 x  1
• Geometric series: k 0 x  1

1
– Special case: |x| < 1: x
k 0
k

1 x
n
1 1 1
• Harmonic series: 
k 1 k
 1 
2
 ... 
n
 ln n

• Other important formulas:  lg k  n lg n

k 1

n
1
 k p  1p  2 p  ...  n p 
k 1 p 1
n p 1
 Mathematical Induction
• A powerful, rigorous technique for proving that a
statement S(n) is true for every natural number n,
no matter how large.

• Proof:

– Basis step: prove that the statement is true for n = 1

– Inductive step: assume that S(n) is true and prove that

S(n+1) is true for all n ≥ 1

• Find case n “within” case n+1

 Example
• Prove that: 2n + 1 ≤ 2n for all n ≥ 3
• Basis step:
– n = 3: 2  3 + 1 ≤ 23  7 ≤ 8 TRUE
• Inductive step:
– Assume inequality is true for n, and prove it for (n+1):

2n + 1 ≤ 2n must prove: 2(n + 1) + 1 ≤ 2n+1

2(n + 1) + 1 = (2n + 1 ) + 2 ≤ 2n + 2 ≤
 2n + 2n = 2n+1, since 2 ≤ 2n for n ≥ 1