Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

Siniloan Campus
Integrity, Professionalism
Siniloan, Laguna
and Innovation

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Adv. STATISTICS
Your professor:

DR. ELENA M. MANAIG

Professor VI
Laguna State Polytechnic University
IMPORTANCE/USES OF STATISTICS

Problem solving tool

Decision making tool
Management tool
Planning tool
Used in generating information
Etc.
STAGES IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
THEORETICAL/
PROBLEM/ CONCEPTUAL HYPOTHESIS
OBJECTIVES FRAMEWORK

RESEARCH
RESEARCH
CONCLUSIONS AND DESIGN
DESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS/
IMPLICATIONS

DATA
DATA COLLECTION
INTERPRETATION
AND DISCUSSION
DATA
PROCESSING
AND ANALYSIS
Introduction to Statistics

1. Overview
2. Types of Data
3. Critical Thinking
4. Design of Experiments
1. Overview
 Overview
A common goal of surveys
and other data collecting
tools is to collect data from a
smaller part of a larger group
so we can learn something
about the larger group.
In plural sense, statistics refers
to set or sets of data
Examples:

 Statistics on Rice Production

 Statistics on Employment
 Statistics on Enrollment
 Statistics on Poverty
 Definitions
 Data are observations
(such as measurements,
genders, survey responses)
that have been collected.
 Definitions
 Statistics: a collection of
methods for planning experiments,
obtaining data, and then organizing,
summarizing, presenting,
analyzing, interpreting, and drawing
conclusions based on the data.
Definitions
Population- is the complete
collection of all elements
(scores, people, measurements,
and so on) to be studied. The
collection is complete in the
sense that it includes all
subjects to be studied. N=200
n=50 (Survey)
 Definitions
 Census: the collection of data
from every member of the
population.

Sample: a sub-collection of
elements drawn from a population.
Survey- collection of data from sample.
 Key Concepts
 Sample data must be collected in
an appropriate way, such as
through a process of random
selection.
• If sample data are not collected
in an appropriate way, the data
may be so completely useless
that no amount of statistical
torturing can salvage them.
 Slide 14

2. Types of Data
 Definitions
 Parameter: a numerical
measurement describing some
characteristic of a population

population

parameter
Population Sample

Subset

Parameter Statistic
• Populations have • Samples have
Parameters. Statistics.
 Definitions
Statistic: a numerical
measurement describing some
characteristic of a sample.
sample

statistic
Definitions
Quantitative data: numbers
representing counts or
measurements of quantitative
variable.
Examples are data on temperature,
weight of eggs, number of fruits,
scores in examination, income,
speed
Definitions
Qualitative (or categorical or
attribute) data
can be separated into different categories
that are distinguished by some
nonnumeric characteristics.
Examples: genders (male/female) of
professional athletes.
: design of machines
: Ethnicity
 Working with
Quantitative Data

Quantitative data can further

be distinguished between
discrete and continuous types.
Definitions
Discrete
data result when the number of possible
values is either a finite number or a
‘countable’ number of possible values.
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Examples:
- number of absences.
- enrollment
- household size
Definitions
Continuous: (numerical) data result from
infinitely many possible values that
correspond to some continuous scale that
covers a range of values without gaps,
interruptions, or jumps.

2 3

Examples are data on

- speed of running in m/sec
- weight gain
- height
 Levels (Scale) of Measurement
Another way to classify data is to
use levels of measurement.
 nominal level of measurement
characterized by data that consist of names,
labels, or categories only. The data cannot be
arranged in an ordering scheme (such as low
to high)

Examples:
- survey responses (yes, no, undecided)
- gender (male, female)
- field of specialization (science, math, English)
- favorite food store (Jollibee, McDo, KFC)
 ordinal level of measurement
involves data that may be arranged in
some order, but differences between data
values either cannot be determined or are
meaningless

Examples:
- Course grades (A, B, C, D, or E)
- Efficiency Ratings (O, VS, S, US, P)
- Places in contests (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
 interval level of measurement
like the ordinal level, with the additional
property that the difference between any two
data values is meaningful. However, there is
no natural zero starting point (where none of
the quantity is present)

Examples:
Years 1000, 2000, 1776, and 1492
Temperature
Frequency of visits
 ratio level of measurement
the interval level modified to include
the natural zero starting point (where
zero indicates that none of the
quantity is present). For values at this
level, differences and ratios are
meaningful.

Example: Prices of college textbooks

($0 represents no cost)
 Summary -
Levels of Measurement

 Nominal - categories only

 Ordinal - categories with some order
 Interval - differences but no natural
starting point
 Ratio - differences and a natural starting
point
 Recap
In previous slides, we have looked at:

Basic definitions and terms describing data

 Parameters versus statistics
 Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative)
 Levels of measurement
 Slide 30

3. Critical Thinking
 Success in Statistics
 Success in the statistics course
typically requires more common sense
than mathematical expertise.

 This section is designed to illustrate

how common sense is used when we
think critically about data and
statistics.
 Misuses of Statistics
• Bad Samples
Voluntary response sample
(or self-selected survey)
one in which the respondents themselves
decide whether to be included.
In this case, valid conclusions can be
made only about the specific group of
people who agree to participate.
 Misuses of Statistics
 Bad Samples
 Small Samples
 Misleading graphs
 Misleading Graphs

Figure 1
To correctly interpret a graph,
we should analyze the
numerical information given in
the graph instead of being
mislead by its general shape.
 Misuses of Statistics

 Bad Samples
 Small Samples
 Misleading Graphs
 Pictographs
 Misuses of Statistics

 Bad Samples
 Small Samples
 Misleading Graphs
 Pictographs
 Distorted Percentages
 Loaded Questions
97% yes: “Are you in favor of the
no-to-drugs campaign of the
president ?”

47% yes: “Are you in favor of the

Tok-hang style of no-to-drugs
campaign of the president ?”
 Misuses of Statistics
Bad Samples Refusals
Small Samples Correlation &
Misleading Graphs Causality
Pictographs Self Interest Study
Distorted Percentages Precise Numbers
Loaded Questions Partial Pictures
Order of Questions Deliberate Distortions
 Recap Slide 40

In this section we have:

 Explained the basic concepts in

Statistics
 Reviewed 13 misuses of statistics.
 Illustrated how common sense can
play a big role in interpreting data
and statistics
 Slide 41

4. Design of Experiments
 Major Points
 If sample data are not collected
in an appropriate way, the data
may be so completely useless that
no amount of statistical tutoring
can salvage them.
 Randomness typically plays a
critical role in determining which
data to collect.
 Observational Study
observing and measuring
specific characteristics
without attempting to
modify the subjects being
studied
 Experiment
Some treatments are
applied and then effects
on the subjects are
observed.
 Confounding
occurs in an experiment when
the experimenter is not able to
distinguish between the effects
of different factors
Try to plan the experiment so confounding
does not occur!
 Controlling Effects of Variables
 Blinding. Subject does not know he or she is
receiving a treatment or placebo
 Blocking. Grouping subjects with similar
characteristics

 Random assignment of treatments. Subjects

to receive specific treatments are randomly
selected (random selection)

 Rigorous Control. Subjects are very carefully

chosen
Population Sample

Subset

Parameter Statistic
• Populations have • Samples have
Parameters, Statistics.
Population
Sample

Subset

Sub
se t
 Replication and Sample Size

 Replication. Repetition of a
treatment in an experiment. In
general, the greater number of
replications, the better.

 Sample Size. In general, the larger

n, the better
 Other Research Approaches
 Cross Sectional Study. Data are observed,
measured, and collected at one point in
time.
 Retrospective (or Case Control) Study.
Data about the past are collected by going
back in time.
 Prospective (or Longitudinal or Cohort) Study.
Data about the future are collected from
groups (called cohorts) sharing common
factors.
 Sampling
 Random Sampling. Some members
of the population are selected in such
a way that each individual member
has a chance of being selected to be
include in the sample
 Non-random Sampling. Some
elements of the population loose the
chance of being chosen and included
in the sample.
Simple Random Sampling
- simplest
- most basic

Methods of Randomization
- draw lots
- drawing cards
- use of random numbers
Systematic Sampling. Some starting
point is selected and then every kth
element in the population
 1 13 25 37 49 61 73 85 97 109
Determine
sample size 2 14 26 38 50 62 74 86 98 110
e.g., n=12
3 15 27 39 51 63 75 87 99 111

4 16 28 40 52 64 76 88 100 112
Determine
interval 5 17 29 41 53 65 77 89 101 113

N 6 18 30 42 54 66 78 90 102 114
i=
n 7 19 31 43 55 67 79 91 103 115
120 8 20 32 44 56 68 80 92 104 116
i= =10
12
9 21 33 45 57 69 81 93 105 117
Choose a 10 22 34 46 58 70 82 94 106 118
random start
from the first 11 23 35 47 59 71 83 95 107 119
10 elements 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120
Convenience Sampling- based on
ease of access to respondent
and collecting data
Population
Sample

Subset

Sub
se t

Stratification
Stratified Sampling- subdividing the population
into at least two different subgroups that share
the same characteristics, then drawing a sample
from each subgroup (or stratum)
Cluster
Sampling-
dividing the
population into
sections (or
clusters);
randomly
selecting some
of those
clusters;
choosing all
members from
selected clusters
 Methods of Sampling
Random Sampling Non-Random Sampling
 Simple  Convenience
Random  Quota
 Systematic  Purposive
 Multi-stage  Judgment
 Stratified  Incidental
 Cluster  Snowball
 Sampling Error
 Sampling Error- the difference between
a sample result and the true population
result; such an error results from chance
sample fluctuations
 Nonsampling Error- sample data that
are incorrectly collected, recorded, or
analyzed (such as by selecting a biased
sample, using a defective instrument, or
copying the data incorrectly)
 Recap

In this section we have looked at:

 Types of studies and experiments
 Controlling the effects of variables
 Randomization
 Types of sampling
 Sampling Errors