Theory of Metal Cutting: Department of Automobile Engineering Unit 1
Theory of Metal Cutting: Department of Automobile Engineering Unit 1
Theory of Metal Cutting: Department of Automobile Engineering Unit 1
Unit 1
THEORY OF METAL
CUTTING
Tool materials, Tool wear
Cutting fluids and Machinability.
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Engineering, DSCE
Cutting Temperatures
Of the total energy consumed in machining, nearly all of it is
converted into heat. The heat generated can cause
temperatures to be as high as 6000C at tool chip interface.
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Cutting Temperatures
Cutting temperatures are important because high
temperatures,
1. Reduce tool life.
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the
machine operator.
3. Can cause inaccuracies in work part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work piece material.
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Effect of cutting temperature
The effect of cutting temperature, particularly when it is
high is mostly detrimental to both the tool and the job.
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Sources and Causes of heat generation
in Machining
During machining, heat is generated at the cutting point from
three sources, as indicated in Fig.
Those sources and causes of development of cutting
temperature are:
Primary shear zone (1) where the major part of the energy
is converted into heat.
Secondary deformation zone (2) at the chip – tool
interface where further heat is generated due to rubbing
and / or shear.
At the worn out flanks (3) due to rubbing between the tool
and the finished surfaces.
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Sources of heat generation in Machining
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Thermal Aspects of Machining
The heat generated is shared by the chip, cutting tool and the blank.
From 10 to 20% of the total heat goes into the tool and some heat is
absorbed in the blank.
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Temperature distribution in Metal
Cutting
Fig. shows temperature
distribution in work piece and chip
during orthogonal cutting
(obtained from an infrared
photograph, for free- cutting mild
steel where cutting speed is
0.38m/s, the width of cut is
6.35mm, the normal rake is 300,
and work piece temperature is
6110C)
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Temperature distribution in Metal
Cutting
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Analytical methods to compute Cutting
Temperatures
Cook’s Method
0 .3 3 3
0 .4U Vt
T
0
Where, C K
δT = Mean temperature rise at tool chip interface, C0
U= Specific Energy in the operation, N-m/mm3
V = Cutting Speed, m/s
t0 = Chip thickness before the cut, m
ρC = Volumetric Specific heat of work material, J/mm3-C0
K = Thermal diffusivity of the work material, m2/s
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Measurement of tool-chip interface
temperature
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Tool work Thermocouple Technique
In a thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically conductive
metals are connected at two junctions.
Whenever one of the junctions is heated, the difference in
temperature at the hot and cold junctions produce a
proportional current which is detected and measured by a
milli-voltmeter.
In machining like turning, the tool and the job constitute the
two dissimilar metals and the cutting zone functions as the hot
junction.
Then the average cutting temperature is evaluated from the mV
after thorough calibration for establishing the exact relation
between mV and the cutting temperature.
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Tool work thermocouple technique
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Embedded thermocouple
technique
In operations like milling, grinding etc. where the previous methods are
not applicable, embedded thermocouple can serve the purpose. Fig. shows
the principle.
With the progress of grinding the depth, hi gradually decreases after each
grinding pass and the value of temperature, θm also rises as has been
indicated in Fig.
For getting the temperature exactly at the surface i.e., grinding zone, hi
has to be zero, which is not possible. So the θm vs hi curve has to be
extrapolated up to hi = 0 to get the actual grinding zone temperature. Log
Departmentmore
– log plot helps such extrapolation of Automobile
easily and accurately.
Embedded thermocouple
technique
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Infra-red photographic technique
This modern and powerful method is based on
taking infra-red photograph of the hot surfaces of the
tool, chip,
and/or job and get temperature distribution at those
surfaces.
Proper calibration is to be done before that. This way the
temperature profiles can be recorded as indicated in Fig.
The fringe pattern readily changes with the change in any
machining parameter which affect cutting temperature.
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Infra-red photographic technique
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Tool wear and failure
The usefulness of tool cutting edge is lost through
Wear
Breakage
Chipping
Deformation
Tool failure implies that the tool has reached a point
beyond which it will not function satisfactorily until it is
re-sharpened.
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Three Modes of Tool Failure
Fracture failure
When the Cutting force at tool point becomes excessive, it
leads to failure by brittle fracture.
Temperature failure
Cutting temperature is too high for the tool material, which
makes the tool point to soften, and leads to plastic
deformation along with a loss of sharp edge.
Gradual wear
Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool
shape, reduction in cutting efficiency and finally tool failure.
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Preferred Mode of Tool Failure:
Gradual Wear
Fracture and temperature failures are premature failures
Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the
longest possible use of the tool
Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
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Figure: Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal
locations and types of wear that occur
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Crater wear
It consists of a concave section on the tool face formed by the
action of the chip sliding on the surface.
At the same time, the crater wear weakens the tool wedge and
increases the possibility for tool breakage.
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Flank wear
It occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the
machined surface of the work piece and the tool flank.
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Corner Wear
It occurs on the tool corner.
(b)flank wear on a
cemented carbide tool,
as seen through a
toolmaker's
microscope
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Tool Wear: Mechanisms
Adhesion wear:
Fragments of the work-piece get welded to the tool surface at high
temperatures; eventually, they break off, tearing small parts of the
tool with them.
Abrasion:
Hard particles, microscopic variations on the bottom surface of the
chips rub against the tool surface and break away a fraction of tool
with them.
Diffusion wear:
At high temperatures, atoms from tool diffuse across to the chip; the
rate of diffusion increases exponentially with temperature; this
reduces the fracture strength of the crystals.
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Tool Wear vs. Time
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Effect of Cutting Speed
Figure: Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three
cutting speeds, using a tool life criterion of 0.50 mm flank
wear Department of Automobile
Figure: Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life
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Tool Life
Tool wear is a time dependent process. As cutting
proceeds, the amount of tool wear increases gradually.
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Taylor Tool Life Equation
This relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor (~1900)
vT n
C
Where, v = cutting speed;
T = tool life; and
n and C are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut, work
material, tooling material, and the tool life criterion used
n is the slope of the plot
C is the intercept on the speed axis
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Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed
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Tool life
Volume of metal removed per minute Vm
Vm = 3/ in
.
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Tool Life
If T be the time for tool failure in mins, The total volume
removed up to Tool Failure
= . . . .
Cutting Speed,
V= DN/ 000
m/min
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Operator’s Tool life
Tool life is measured by:
Visual inspection of tool edge
Tool breaks
Fingernail test
Changes in cutting sounds
Chips become ribbony, stringy
Surface finish degrades
Computer interface says
- power consumption up
- cumulative cutting time reaches certain level
- cumulative number of pieces reaches certain value
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Wear Control
The rate of tool wear strongly depends on the cutting
temperature, therefore, any measures which could be
applied to reduce the cutting temperature would reduce the
tool wear as well.
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Wear Control
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Cutting Tool Technology
It has two principal aspects:
1. Tool material
Developing materials that can withstand the
forces, temperatures and wearing in machining
process.
2. Tool geometry
Optimizing the geometry of the cutting tool
for the tool material and for a given
operation. Department of Automobile
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
The cutting tool materials must possess a number of important
properties to avoid excessive wear, fracture failure and high
temperatures in cutting.
The following characteristics are essential for cutting materials to
withstand the heavy conditions of the cutting process and to produce
high quality and economical parts:
Tool failure modes identify the important properties that a tool
material should possess:
Toughness - to avoid fracture failure.
Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness at high temperatures.
Wear resistance - hardness is the most important property to
resist abrasive wear.
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CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
hardness at elevated temperatures (so-called hot hardness) so
that hardness and strength of the tool edge are maintained in high
cutting temperatures.
Toughness: ability of the material to absorb energy without
failing. Cutting is often accompanied by impact forces especially if
cutting is interrupted, and cutting tool may fail very soon if it is
not strong enough.
wear resistance: although there is a strong correlation between
hot hardness and wear resistance, latter depends on more than
just hot hardness. Other important characteristics include surface
finish on the tool, chemical inertness of the tool material with
respect to the work material, and thermal conductivity of the tool
material, which affects the maximum value of the cutting
temperature at tool-chip interface.
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Fig: Typical hot hardness relationships for selected tool materials.
T-series (18-4-1):
Contains 18 % tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium
& cobalt
undergoes less distortion during heat treating
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Cemented Carbides
Introduced in the 1930s. These are the most important
tool materials today because of their high hot hardness
and wear resistance.
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Cemented Carbides – General
Properties
High compressive strength, but low to moderate
tensile strength
High hardness (90 to 95 HRA)
Good hot hardness
Good wear resistance
High thermal conductivity
High elastic modulus - 600 x 103 MPa (90 x 106 lb/in2)
Toughness lower than high speed steel
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Cemented Carbides
This hard tool material is produced by a powder
metallurgy technique, sintering grains of tungsten carbide
(WC) in a cobalt (Co) matrix (as the binder, it provides
toughness).
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Cemented Carbides
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Insert
In spite of more traditional tool materials, cemented carbides are available as
inserts produced byAttachment
powder metallurgy process.
Inserts are available in various shapes, and are usually mechanically attached
by means of clamps to the tool holder, or brazed to the tool holder.
The clamping is preferred because after an cutting edge gets worn, the insert is
indexed (rotated in the holder) for another cutting edge.
When all cutting edges are worn, the insert is thrown away. The indexable
carbide inserts are never reground.
If the carbide insert is brazed to the tool holder, indexing is not available, and
after reaching the wear criterion, the carbide insert is re-sharpened on a tool
grinder.
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Types of Cemented Carbides
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Steel Cutting Carbide Grades
Used for low carbon, stainless, and other alloy steels
– For these grades, TiC and/or TaC are substituted for
some of the WC.
– This composition increases crater wear resistance for
steel cutting, but adversely affects flank wear resistance
for non-steel cutting applications.
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Coated
WC
One advance in cutting tool materials involves the application
of a very thin coating (~ 10 μm) to a K-grade substrate,
which is the toughest of all carbide grades.
Coating may consists of one or more
thin layers of wear-resistant
material, such as titanium carbide
(TiC), titanium nitride (TiN),
aluminum oxide (Al2O3),
other,
and/ormore advanced materials.
Coating allows to increase
significantly the cutting speed for the Structure of a multi-layer
same tool life. coated carbide insert
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Coated Carbides
Cemented carbide insert coated with one or more thin layers
of wear resistant materials, such as TiC, TiN, and/orAl2O3
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Ceramics
Two types are available:
White or cold-pressed ceramics, which consists of only
Al2O3 cold pressed into inserts and sintered at high
temperature.
Black or hot-pressed ceramics, commonly known as
cermet (from ceramics & metal). This material consists of
70% Al2O3 and 30% TiC.
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Diamond
• Diamond is the hardest ever known of all
substance materials.
• Low friction, high wear resistance.
• Ability to maintain sharp cutting
edge.
• Use is limited because it gets converted into graphite at
high temperature (700 C). Graphite diffuses into iron
and make it unsuitable for machining steels.
• It is used as a coating material in its polycrystalline form,
or as a single- crystal diamond tool for special applications,
such as mirror finishing of non-ferrous materials.
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Synthetic Diamonds
Sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD) - fabricated by
sintering very fine grained diamond crystals under high
temperatures and pressures into desired shape with little or
no binder.
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Cubic Boron Nitride
Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (CBN) is
hardest material known. Retain hardness up to 1000 C.
By bonding 0.5 mm thick polycrystalline CBN
onto a carbide substrate through sintering under
pressure.
CBN is used mainly as coating material because it is very
brittle.
In spite of diamond, CBN is suitable for cutting
ferrous materials.
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Cutting Fluids
Act as disposable
heat sink
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Characteristics of a
Good Cutting
Fluid
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Characteristics of a
Good Cutting
1. Fluid
Good cooling capacity
2. Good lubricating qualities
3. Resistance to rancidity
4. Relatively low viscosity
5. Stability (long life)
6. Rust resistance
7. Nontoxic
8. Transparent
9. Non inflammable
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Economic Advantages to Using
Cutting Fluids
Reduction of tool costs.
– Reduce tool wear, tools last longer
Other functions
– Prolong cutting-tool life
– Provide rust control
– Resist rancidity
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Functions of a Cutting Fluid:
Cooling
• Most effective at high cutting speeds where heat generation
and high temperatures are problems.
• Most effective on tool materials that are most susceptible to
temperature failures. (e.g., HSS)
• Two sources of heat during cutting action
– Plastic deformation of metal
• Occurs immediately ahead of cutting tool
• Accounts for 2/3 to 3/4 of heat
– Friction from chip sliding along cutting-tool face.
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Functions of a Cutting Fluid:
Cooling
• Water used as base in coolant - type cutting fluids.
• Water most effective for reducing heat by will promote
oxidation (rust).
• Heat has definite bearing on cutting-tool wear
– Small reduction will greatly extend tool life
• Decrease the temperature at the chip-tool interface by 50
degrees F, and it will increase tool life by up to 5 times.
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Functions of a Cutting Fluid:
Lubrication
• Usually oil based fluids and are most effective at
lower cutting speeds.
• Also reduces temperature in the operation.
• Reduces friction between chip and tool face
– Shear plane becomes shorter
– i.e., the area where plastic deformation occurs is smaller
• Extreme-pressure lubricants reduce amount of heat produced
by friction.
• EP chemicals of synthetic fluids combine chemically
with sheared metal of chip to form solid compounds (allows
chip
to slide) Department of Automobile 87
Cutting fluid reduces friction and
produces a shorter shear plane.
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Cutting-Tool Life
• Heat and friction are prime causes of cutting-
tool breakdown
• Reduce temperature by as little as 500F, life of cutting
tool increases fivefold
• Built-up edge
– Pieces of metal weld themselves to tool face
– Becomes large and flat along tool face, effective rake
angle of cutting tool decreased
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Built-up
Edge
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Rust Control
• Water is the best and most economical coolant
– Causes parts to rust
• Rust is oxidized iron
• Chemical cutting fluids contain rust inhibitors
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Rancidity Control
Rancidity caused by bacteria and other microscopic
organisms, growing and eventually causing bad odours
to form.
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Application of Cutting Fluids
• Cutting-tool life and machining operations influenced
by way cutting fluid applied
• Copious stream under low pressure so work and tool
well covered
– Inside diameter of supply nozzle ¾ width of cutting
tool
– Applied to where chip being formed
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Refrigerated Air System
• Another way to cool chip-tool interface
• Effective, inexpensive and readily available
• Used where dry machining is necessary
• Uses compressed air that enters vortex generation
chamber
– Cooled 1000F below incoming air
• Air directed to interface and blow chips away
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Types of Cutting Fluids
• Most commonly used cutting fluids
– Either aqueous based solutions or cutting oils
• Fall into three categories
– Straight Cutting oils
– Emulsifiable oils or Water Soluble oils
– Chemical (synthetic) cutting fluids
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Straight Cutting Oils
• Derived from petroleum, animal, marine or vegetable
substances and may be used straight or in combination.
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Emulsifiable (Water Soluble) Oils
• About 90% of all metal cutting and grinding operations
make use of emulsions due to their high sp. Heat, high
thermal conductivity and high heat of vapourisation.
• Mineral oils containing soap like material that makes them
soluble in water and causes them to adhere to work piece.
• Emulsifiers break oil into minute particles and keep
them separated in water.
– Water blend is in the ratio of 1 part oil to 15~20 parts water
(for cutting) and 40 to 60 parts of water (for grinding)
• Good cooling and lubricating qualities.
• Used at high cutting speeds, low cutting pressures.
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Chemical Cutting Fluids
• Also called synthetic fluids
• Introduced about 1945
• Stable, preformed emulsions
– Contain very little oil and mix easily with water
• Extreme-pressure (EP) lubricants added
– React with freshly machined metal under heat and pressure
of a cut to form solid lubricant
• Reduce heat of friction and heat caused by
plastic deformation of metal
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Merits & Demerits of Synthetic Fluids
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Advantages of Synthetic Fluids
Good rust control
Resistance to rancidity for long periods of time
Reduction of amount of heat generated during cutting due
to Excellent cooling qualities
Longer durability than cutting or soluble oils
Nonflammable – nonsmoking & Nontoxic ??????
Easy separation from work and chips
Quick settling of grit and fine chips so they are not
re- circulated in cooling system
No clogging of machine cooling system due to
detergent action of fluid
Can leave a residue on parts and tools.
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Caution
Chemical cutting fluids accepted
widely and generally used on ferrous
metals.
They are not recommended for use on alloys
of magnesium, zinc, cadmium, or lead.
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Machinability
• Ease or difficulty with which metal can be machined
with satisfactory finish at low cost.
• Measured by length of cutting-tool life in minutes or by
rate of stock removal in relation to cutting speed
employed.
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Machinability
Machinability is defined in terms of:
1. Surface finish and surface integrity of machined part
2. Tool life
3. Force and power required
4. The level of difficulty in chip control
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Machinability:
Machinability of Nonferrous Metals
• Aluminum
– very easy to machine
– but softer grades: form BUE ⇒ poor surface finish
– ⇒ recommend high cutting speeds, high rake and relief angles
• Beryllium
– requires machining in a controlled environment
– this is due to toxicity of fine particles produced in machining
• Cobalt-based alloys
– abrasive and work hardening
– require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials, and low feeds and
speeds
• Copper
– can be difficult to machine because
Department of BUE
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formation
Machinability:
Machinability of Nonferrous Metals
• Magnesium
– very easy to machine, good surface finish, prolonged tool
life
– Caution: high rate of oxidation and fire danger
• Titanium and its alloys
– have very poor thermal conductivity
– ⇒ high temp. rise and BUE ⇒ difficult to machine
• Tungsten
– brittle, strong, and very abrasive
– ⇒ machinability is low
• Zirconium
– Good machinability
– Requires cooling cutting fluid (danger
Department of explosion, fire) 110
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Aluminum
• Pure aluminum generally more difficult to
machine than aluminum alloys
– Produces long stringy chips and harder on cutting tool
• Aluminum alloys
– Cut at high speeds, yield good surface finish
– Hardened and tempered alloys easier to machine
– Silicon in alloy makes it difficult to machine
• Chips tear from work (poor surface)
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Copper
• Heavy, soft, reddish-colored metal refined from
copper ore (copper sulfide)
– High electrical and thermal conductivity
– Very ductile
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Copper/Beryllium
• Heavy, hard, reddish-colored copper metal with Beryllium
added
– High electrical and thermal conductivity.
– Good corrosion resistance and strength.
– Can be welded.
– Somewhat ductile.
– Withstands high temperature.
• Machines well
– Highly abrasive to HSS Tooling.
– Coolant should be used to lubricate and minimize tool wear.
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Copper-Based Alloys: Brass
• Alloy of copper and zinc with good
resistance, easily formed, machines, and cast.
corrosion
• Several forms of brass.
– Alpha brasses: up to 36% zinc, suitable for cold
working.
– Alpha 1 beta brasses: Contain 54%-62% copper and used
in hot working.
• Phosphor-bronze
– 90% copper, 10% tin, and very small amount of phosphorus
– High strength, toughness, corrosion resistance
– Used for lock washers, cotter pins, springs and clutch discs
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Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze
• Silicon-bronze (copper-silicon alloy)
– Contains less than 5% silicon
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Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze
• Aluminum-bronze (copper-aluminum alloy)
– Contains between 4% and 11% aluminum
– Other elements added
Iron and nickel (both up to 5%) increases strength
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Effects of
Temperature and Friction
• Heat created
– Plastic deformation occurring in metal during
process of forming chip
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Effects of
Temperature and Friction
• Temperature of metal immediately ahead of cutting tool
comes close to melting temperature of metal being cut.
• Greatest heat generated when ductile material of
high tensile strength is cut.
• Lowest heat generated when soft material of low
tensile strength is cut.
• Maximum temperature attained during cutting action.
– affects cutting-tool life, quality of surface finish,
rate of
production and accuracy
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of work piece.
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Friction
• Kept low as possible for efficient cutting action
• Increasing coefficient of friction greate
gives
possibility of built-up edge forming r
– Larger built-up edge, more friction
– Results in breakdown of cutting edge and poor surface finish
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Factors Affecting Surface
Finish
• Feed rate
• Nose radius of tool
• Cutting speed
• Rigidity of machining operation
• Temperature generated during machining process
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Surface Finish
• Direct relationship between temperature of work piece
and quality of surface finish
– High temperature yields rough surface finish
– Metal particles tend to adhere to cutting tool and form built-
up edge