Relational Algebra

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman

 Relational Query Languages
 Query languages: Allow manipulation and retrieval
of data from a database.
 Relational model supports simple, powerful QLs:
 Strong formal foundation based on logic.
 Allows for much optimization.
 Query Languages != programming languages!
 QLs not expected to be “Turing complete”.
 QLs not intended to be used for complex calculations.
 QLs support easy, efficient access to large data sets.

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman

 Formal Relational Query Languages
 Two mathematical Query Languages form
the basis for “real” languages (e.g. SQL), and
for implementation:
 Relational Algebra: More operational(procedural),
very useful for representing execution plans.
 Relational Calculus: Lets users describe what they
want, rather than how to compute it. (Non-
operational, declarative.)

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman

 Preliminaries
 A query is applied to relation instances, and the
result of a query is also a relation instance.
 Schemas of input relations for a query are fixed (but
query will run regardless of instance!)
 The schema for the result of a given query is also
fixed! Determined by definition of query language
constructs.
 Positional vs. named-field notation:
 Positional notation easier for formal definitions,
named-field notation more readable.
 Both used in SQL
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman
 R1 sid bid day
Example Instances 22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
 “Sailors” and “Reserves” sid sname rating age
relations for our examples. S1
“bid”= boats. “sid”: sailors 22 dustin 7 45.0
 We’ll use positional or 31 lubber 8 55.5
named field notation, 58 rusty 10 35.0
assume that names of fields
in query results are
S2 sid sname rating age
`inherited’ from names of
28 yuppy 9 35.0
fields in query input
relations.
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman
 Relational Algebra
 Basic operations:


Selection ( ) Selects a subset of rows from relation.


Projection ( ) Deletes unwanted columns from relation.


 Cross-product ( ) Allows us to combine two relations.
 Set-difference ( ) Tuples in reln. 1, but not in reln. 2.
 
Union ( ) Tuples in reln. 1 and in reln. 2.
 Additional operations:

 Intersection, join, division, renaming: Not essential, but (very!) useful.
 Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be
composed! (Algebra is “closed”.)

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman

 sname rating
Projection yuppy 9
lubber 8
 Deletes attributes that are not in guppy 5
projection list.
rusty 10
 Schema of result contains exactly
the fields in the projection list, with  sname,rating(S2)
the same names that they had in
the (only) input relation.
 Projection operator has to
eliminate duplicates! (Why??, what age
are the consequences?) 35.0
 Note: real systems typically
55.5
don’t do duplicate elimination
unless the user explicitly asks  age(S2)
for it. (Why not?)
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman
 sid sname rating age
Selection 28 yuppy 9 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
 Selects rows that satisfy
selection condition.  rating 8(S2)
 Schema of result
identical to schema of
(only) input relation.
 Result relation can be sname rating
the input for another yuppy 9
relational algebra
operation! (Operator rusty 10
composition.)
 sname,rating( rating 8(S2))

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman

 Union, Intersection, Set-Difference
sid sname rating age
 All of these operations take 22 dustin 7 45.0
two input relations, which 31 lubber 8 55.5
must be union-compatible: 58 rusty 10 35.0
 Same number of fields. 44 guppy 5 35.0
 `Corresponding’ fields 28 yuppy 9 35.0
have the same type. S1 S2
 What is the schema of result?
sid sname rating age
sid sname rating age 31 lubber 8 55.5
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 rusty 10 35.0
S1 S2 S1 S2
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman
 Cross-Product
 Each row of S1 is paired with each row of R1.
 Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1,
with field names `inherited’ if possible.
 Conflict: Both S1 and R1 have a field called sid.
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96

 Renaming operator:  (C(1 sid1, 5  sid 2), S1 R1)

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1
 Joins
 Condition Join: R  c S   c ( R  S)
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
S1same
Result schema R1
 as that of cross-product.

S1. sid  R1. sid
 Fewer tuples than cross-product. Filters tuples not
satisfying the join condition.
 Sometimes called a theta-join.

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1

 Joins
 Equi-Join: A special case of condition join where
the condition c contains only equalities.
sid sname rating age bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96

sid ,..,age,bid,..(S1 
sid
R1)
 Result schema similar to cross-product, but only
one copy of fields for which equality is specified.
 Natural Join: Equijoin on all common fields.

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1

 Division
 Not supported as a primitive operator, but useful for
expressing queries like:
Find sailors who have reserved all
boats.
 Precondition: in A/B, the attributes in B must be included
in the schema for A. Also, the result has attributes A-B.
 SALES(supId, prodId);
 PRODUCTS(prodId);
 Relations SALES and PRODUCTS must be built using
projections.
 SALES/PRODUCTS: the ids of the suppliers supplying ALL
products.
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1
 Examples of Division A/B
sno pno pno pno pno
s1 p1 p2 p2 p1
s1 p2 p4 p2
s1 p3 B1 p4
s1 p4
B2
s2 p1 sno B3
s2 p2 s1
s3 p2 s2 sno
s4 p2 s3 s1 sno
s4 p4 s4 s4 s1

A A/B1 A/B2 A/B3

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1
 Expressing A/B Using Basic Operators
 Division is not essential op; just a useful shorthand.
 (Also true of joins, but joins are so common that systems
implement joins specially. Division is NOT implemented
in SQL).
 Idea: For SALES/PRODUCTS, compute all products
such that there exists at least one supplier not
supplying it.
 x value is disqualified if by attaching y value from B, we
obtain an xy tuple that is not in A.
A (( (Sales)Pr oducts)Sales)
sid sid
The answer is sid(Sales) - A
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat #103

 Solution 1:  sname(( Reserves)  Sailors)

bid 103

 Solution 2:  (Temp1,  Re serves)

bid  103

 ( Temp2, Temp1  Sailors)

 sname (Temp2)

 Solution 3:  sname ( (Re serves  Sailors))

bid 103
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a red boat

 Information about boat color only available in

Boats; so need an extra join:
 sname (( Boats)  Re serves  Sailors)
color ' red '

 A more efficient solution:

 sname ( ((  Boats)  Re s)  Sailors)
sid bid color ' red '

A query optimizer can find this, given the first solution!

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1
 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or a green boat
 Can identify all red or green boats, then find
sailors who’ve reserved one of these boats:
 (Tempboats, ( Boats))
color ' red '  color ' green '
 sname(Tempboats  Re serves  Sailors)

 Can also define Tempboats using union! (How?)

 What happens if  is replaced by  in this query?
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1
 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a green boat

 Previous approach won’t work! Must identify

sailors who’ve reserved red boats, sailors
who’ve reserved green boats, then find the
intersection (note that sid is a key for Sailors):
 (Tempred,  (( Boats)  Re serves))
sid color ' red '
 (Tempgreen,  (( Boats)  Re serves))
sid color ' green'

 sname((Tempred  Tempgreen)  Sailors)

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 1

 Find the names of sailors who’ve reserved all boats

 Uses division; schemas of the input relations

to / must be carefully chosen:

 (Tempsids, ( Re serves) / ( Boats))

sid, bid bid
 sname (Tempsids  Sailors)

 To find sailors who’ve reserved all ‘Interlake’ boats:

..... / ( Boats)
bid bname ' Interlake'
CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 2
 Summary

 The relational model has rigorously defined

query languages that are simple and
powerful.
 Relational algebra is more operational; useful
as internal representation for query
evaluation plans.
 Several ways of expressing a given query; a
query optimizer should choose the most
efficient version.

CSCD343- Introduction to databases- A. Vaisman 2