Topic 2: Mechanics

2.2 – Forces
Essential idea: Classical physics requires a force to
change a state of motion, as suggested by Newton
in his laws of motion.
Nature of science: (1) Using mathematics: Isaac
Newton provided the basis for much of our
understanding of forces and motion by formalizing
the previous work of scientists through the
application of mathematics by inventing calculus to
assist with this. (2) Intuition: The tale of the falling
apple describes simply one of the many flashes of
intuition that went into the publication of Philosophiæ
Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687.
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Understandings:
• Objects as point particles
• Free-body diagrams
• Translational equilibrium
• Newton’s laws of motion
• Solid friction
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Applications and skills:
• Representing forces as vectors
• Sketching and interpreting free-body diagrams
• Describing the consequences of Newton’s first law for
translational equilibrium
• Using Newton’s second law quantitatively and
qualitatively
• Identifying force pairs in the context of Newton’s third
law
• Solving problems involving forces and determining
resultant force
• Describing solid friction (static and dynamic) by
coefficients of friction
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Guidance:
• Students should label forces using commonly
accepted names or symbols (for example: weight or
force of gravity or mg)
• Free-body diagrams should show scaled vector
lengths acting from the point of application
• Examples and questions will be limited to constant
mass
• mg should be identified as weight
• Calculations relating to the determination of resultant
forces will be restricted to one- and two-dimensional
situations
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Data booklet reference:
• F = ma
• Ff ≤ µsR
• Ff = µdR
Theory of knowledge:
• Classical physics believed that the whole of the future
of the universe could be predicted from knowledge
of the present state. To what extent can knowledge
of the present give us knowledge of the future?
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Utilization:
• Motion of charged particles in fields (see Physics sub-
topics 5.4, 6.1, 11.1, 12.2)
• Application of friction in circular motion (see Physics
sub-topic 6.1)
• Construction (considering ancient and modern
approaches to safety, longevity and consideration of
local weather and geological influences)
• Biomechanics (see Sports, exercise and health
science SL sub-topic 4.3)
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Aims:
• Aims 2 and 3: Newton’s work is often described by
the quote from a letter he wrote to his rival, Robert
Hooke, which states: “What Descartes did was a
good step. You have added much [in] several ways.
If I have seen a little further it is by standing on the
shoulders of Giants.” This quote is also inspired, this
time by writers who had been using versions of it for
at least 500 years before Newton’s time.
• Aim 6: experiments could include (but are not limited
to): verification of Newton’s second law; investigating
forces in equilibrium; determination of the effects of
friction.
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Representing forces as vectors
A force is a pull measured in Newtons.
One force we are very familiar with is the force of
gravity, also known as the weight.
The very concepts of push and pull imply direction.
Thus forces are vectors.
The direction of the weight is down toward the center
of the earth.
If you have a weight of 90 Newtons (or 90 N), your
weight can be expressed as a vector: 90 N, down.
We will show later that weight has the formula
W=mg where g = -9.8 m s -2 weight
and m is the mass in kg
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Newton’s laws of motion – The first law
Newton’s first law is related to certain studies made by
Galileo Galilee which contradicted Aristotelian tenets.
Aristotle basically said “The natural state of motion of
all objects (but the heavenly ones) is one of rest.”
A child will learn that if you stop pushing a wagon, the
wagon will eventually stop moving.
This simple observation will lead the child to come
up with a force law that looks something like this:
“In order for a body to be in motion, there must be
a force acting on it.”
As we will show on the next slide, both of
these observations are false!
 Inertia will only
Topic 2: Mechanics change if there
2.2 – Forces is a force.

Newton’s laws of motion – The first law

Here’s how Galileo (1564-1642) thought:
If I give a cart a push on a smooth, level surface, it will
eventually stop.
What can I do to increase the distance it rolls without
pushing it harder or changing the slope?
If I can minimize the friction, it’ll go farther.
In fact, he reasoned, if I eliminate the friction altogether
the cart will roll forever!
Galileo called the tendency of an object to not
change its state of motion inertia.
 A body’s velocity
Topic 2: Mechanics will only change if
there is a net force
2.2 – Forces acting on it.
Describing the consequences of Newton’s first law
for translational equilibrium
Newton’s first law is drawn from his concept of net
force and Galileo’s concept of inertia.
Newton’s first law says that a body’s velocity will only
change if there is a net force acting on it.
In his words...“Every body continues in its state of rest,
or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is
compelled to change that state by forces impressed
thereon.”
In symbols...
W = mg Newton’s first law
____________________________________________
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Translational equilibrium
As a memorable demonstration of inertia – matter’s
tendency to not change its state of motion (or its state of
rest) - consider this:
A water balloon is cut very rapidly with a knife.
For an instant the water remains at rest!
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Objects as point particles and Free-body diagrams
W = mg where g = -9.8 m s -2 weight
and m is the mass in kg
EXAMPLE: Calculate the weight of a 25-kg Free-body
object. diagram
SOLUTION:
· Since m = 25 kg and g = -9.8 m s-2,
m
W = mg = (25)(10) = 250 N
· Note that w goes downward from the fact that
the arrow points downward.
· We sketch the mass as a point(dot), and the
weight in a downward arrow: w
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Objects as point particles and Free-body diagrams
Certainly there are other forces besides weight
that you are familiar with.
For example, when you set a mass on a tabletop,
even though it stops moving, it still has a weight.
The implication is that the tabletop applies a
counterforce to the weight, called a normal force.
Note that the weight and the normal forces are the N
W
same length – they balance.
The normal force is called a surface contact force.
 Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Objects as point particles and Free-body diagrams
Tension T can only be a pull and never a push.
Friction Ff tries to oppose the motion.
Friction Ff is parallel to the contact surface.
Normal N is perpendicular to the contact surface.
Friction and normal are mutually perpendicular. Ff N.
Friction and normal are surface contact forces.
Weight W is an action-at-a-distance force.
N

T
Ff the tension
Contact surface

W
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Sketching and interpreting free-body diagrams
Weight is sketched from the center of an object.
Normal is always sketched perpendicular to the contact
surface.
Friction is sketched parallel to the contact surface.
Tension is sketched at whatever angle is given.

N
T

Ff

W
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Sketching and interpreting free-body diagrams
EXAMPLE: An object has a tension acting on it at 30°
as shown. Sketch in the forces, and draw a free-body
diagram.

Free-body diagram
SOLUTION:
N

N Ff T
T
30°
30°
Ff W

W
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
The resultant force is just the vector sum of all the
forces acting on the object.
EXAMPLE: An object has mass of 25 kg. A tension of
50 N and a friction force of 30 N are acting on it as
shown. What is the resultant force?
SOLUTION:
R
· Since the weight and the normal
forces cancel out in the y-
50 N
direction, we only need to worry F T
f
about the forces in the x-direction.
30 N
W
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
The resultant (or net) force is just the vector sum of
all of the forces acting on a body.
Fnet = F Fx,net = Fx Fy,net = Fy net force
EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F1 = 50. N
and F2 = 30. N applied simultaneously to it. What is the
resultant force’s magnitude?
SOLUTION: F2

30. N
· Fnet = F = F1 + F2 so we simply
graphically add the two vectors:
· Fnet2 = F12 + F22 = 502 + 302
Fnet = 58 N 50. N F1
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
The resultant (or net) force is just the vector sum of
all of the forces acting on a body.
Fnet = F Fx,net = Fx Fy,net = Fy net force
EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F1 = 50. n
and F2 = 30. n applied simultaneously to it as shown.
What is the resultant force’s direction?
SOLUTION: F2
F net

30. N
· Direction is measured from the (+) x-axis.
· Opposite and adjacent are given directly, 
so use tangent. 50. N F1
· tan-1(30/50) = 31o
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F1 = 50. N
and F2 = 30. N applied simultaneously to it. What is the
resultant force’s magnitude?
SOLUTION:
· Begin by resolving F1 into its x- F2
and y-components.

30. N
F1
· Then Fnet,x = 50cos(28) = 44 N
0 .N
5
· net,y
F = 50sin(28) = 23 N 28°
Fnet2 = Fnet,x2 + Fnet,y2
Fnet2 = 44 N2 + 53 N2
 30° 45° T
2
T1 tT
Topic 2: Mechanics kno 3

2.2 – Forces m

Translational equilibrium
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via T3
three cords as shown. Find the tension in each
of the three cords, in terms of m.
SOLUTION:
· Give each tension a name to organize your effort. mg
· Draw a free body diagram of the mass and FBD, m
the knot.
· T3 is the easiest force to find. Why? T1 T2
· Since m is not moving, its FBD tells us that 30° 45°
Fy = 0. T3
T3 – mg = 0 T3 = mg FBD, knot
 30° 45° T
2
T1 tT
Topic 2: Mechanics kno 3

2.2 – Forces m

Translational equilibrium
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via
three cords as shown. Find the tension in each T3
of the three cords, in terms of m.
SOLUTION: T3 = mg
· Now we break T1 and T2 down to components. mg
FBD, m
· Looking at the FBD of the knot we see that
T1x = T1 cos(30) = 0.866T1
T1 T2
T1y = T1 sin(30) = 0.5T1
30° 45°
T2x = T2 cos(45) = 0.707T2
T3
T2y = T2 sin(45) = 0.707T2
FBD, knot
 30° 45° T
2
T1 tT
Topic 2: Mechanics kno 3

2.2 – Forces m

Translational equilibrium
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via
three cords as shown. Find the tension in each T3
of the three cords, in terms of m.
SOLUTION: T3 = mg
∑Fx = 0 mg
0.707T2 – 0.866T1 = 0 FBD, m
0.707T2 = 0.866T1 T2 = 1.225T1
∑Fy = 0
T1 T2
0.707T2 + 0.5T1 - T3 = 0 30° 45°
T3 = 0.707(1.225)T1 + 0.5T1
mg / 1.366 = T1 T3
FBD, knot
 30° 45° T
2
T1 tT
Topic 2: Mechanics kno 3

2.2 – Forces m

Solving problems involving forces and resultant force

PRACTICE: A 25-kg mass is hanging via three cords as
shown. Find the tension in each of the three cords, in
Newtons.
SOLUTION:
· Since all of the angles are the same use the formulas
we just derived:
T3 = mg = 245 N
T2 = 0.897mg = 220 N
T1 = mg / 1.366 = 179 N

FYI This was an example of using Newton’s first law

with v = 0. The next example shows how to use
Newton’s first law when v is constant, but not zero.
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
EXAMPLE: A 1000. kg airplane is flying at a constant
velocity of 125 m s-1. Label and determine the value of
the weight W, the lift L, the drag D and the thrust F if the
drag is 25000 N. L10000N
25000N 25000N

SOLUTION: D F
W 10000N
· Since the velocity is constant,
Newton’s first law applies. Thus Fx = 0 and Fy = 0.
Fx = F – D = 0 F = D = 25000N
Fy = L – W = 0 L = W = 10000N
  
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Newton reasoned “If the sum of the forces is not zero,
the velocity will change.”
Newton knew (as we also know) that a change in
velocity is an acceleration.
So Newton then asked himself: “How is the sum of the
forces related to the acceleration?”
Here is what Newton said: “The acceleration of an
object is proportional to the net force acting on it, and
inversely proportional to its mass.”
The bigger the force the bigger the acceleration, and
the bigger the mass the smaller the acceleration.
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law
Looking at the form F = ma note that
if a = 0, then F = 0.
But if a = 0, then v = constant.
Thus Newton’s first law is just a special case of his
second – namely, when the acceleration is zero.
FYI
The condition a = 0 can is thus the condition for
translational equilibrium, just as F = 0 is.
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law
EXAMPLE: An object has a mass of 25 kg. A tension of
50 N and a friction force of 30 N are acting N
on it as shown. What is its acceleration?
SOLUTION: 50 N
Ff T
· The vertical forces W and N
cancel out. 30 N
· The net force is thus W
50 N – 30 N = 20 N
· From Fnet = ma we get:
so that: F/m = a = 20N / 25kg = 0.8 m s-2
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law
PRACTICE: Use F = ma to show that the formula for
weight is correct.
SOLUTION:
F = Weight
a=g
F = ma  W = mg
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law
EXAMPLE: A 1000-kg airplane is flying in perfectly level
flight. The drag D is 25000N and the thrust F is 40000N.
Find its acceleration.
L

D F
SOLUTION: W
· Since the flight is level, L and W cancel out.
Fx = 40000N – 25000N = 15000N
a = F/m = 15000N / 1000kg = 15 m s-2
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object has exactly two forces
F1 = 40. N and F2 = 30. N applied simultaneously to it.
F2
What is the object’s acceleration?
SOLUTION:

30 N
F1
· Resolve F1 into its components:
40sin(25)
25° = 17 N
√362 + 472 = 59 N 40cos(25)
= 36 N
a = 59 / 25 = 2.4 m s-2
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object resting
on a frictionless incline is released,

6.0 m
as shown. What is its acceleration?
SOLUTION:
30°
Begin with a FBD.
Break down the weight into its components.
Since N and mg cos 30°are perpendicular to the path of
the crate they do NOT contribute to its acceleration.
Thus Fnet = ma
mgsin(30) = ma
a = 9.8sin(30) = 5.0 m s-2
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object resting
 
on a frictionless incline is released, a=
as shown. What is its speed at the 4.9

6.0 m
m s -2
bottom? s
SOLUTION: 30°
We found that its acceleration is 4.9 m s-2.
We will use v2 = u2 + 2as to find , so we need s.
We have opposite and we want hypotenuse s so from
trigonometry, we use sin  = .
Thus 6m / sin(30) = 12m
v = √ 2(5)(12) = 11 m s-1
 Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solid friction
Recall that friction acts opposite to the intended
direction of motion, and parallel to the contact surface.
Suppose we begin to pull a crate to the right, with
gradually increasing force.
We plot the applied force, and the friction force, as
functions of time:

tension static dynamic

Force

friction friction
friction

T
f
Time
static dynamic
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solid friction Fs,max
During the static phase,

Force
tension
the static friction force Fd friction
Fs exactly matches the
applied (tension) force. Time
static dynamic
Fs increases linearly until
it reaches a maximum value Fs,max.
The friction force then almost instantly decreases to a
constant value of Fd, called the dynamic friction force.
Take note of the following general properties of the
friction force:
0 ≤ Fs ≤ Fs,max Fd < Fs,max Fd = constant
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction
Since there are two types of friction, static and
dynamic, every pair of materials will have two
coefficients of friction, µs and µd.
In addition to the "roughness" or "smoothness" of the
materials, the friction force depends, not surprisingly, on
the normal force R.
The harder the two surfaces are squished together
(this is what the normal force measures) the more
friction there will be.
Here are the relationships between the friction force Ff,
the coefficients of friction μ, and the normal force N:
Ff ≤ μs R static Ff = μd R dynamic friction
 Topic 2: Mechanics y
R
2.2 – Forces Ff
x
Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction
EXAMPLE: A piece of wood with a coin on it is mg 15°
raised on one end until the coin just begins to FBD, coin
slip. The angle the wood makes with the
horizontal is θ = 15°. What is the
coefficient of static friction? θ = 15°
∑Fy = 0 ∑Fx = 0
R – mg cos 15° = 0 Ff – mg sin 15° = 0
R = mg cos 15° Ff = mg sin 15°
Ff = μs N μs = (mgsin(15))/(mgcos(15))
= tan(15) = 0.268
mg sin 15° = μs mg cos 15°
 Topic 2: Mechanics y

2.2 – Forces
x
Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction
EXAMPLE: Now suppose the plank of wood is
long enough so that you can lower it to the point FBD, coin
that the coin keeps slipping, but no longer accelerates
(v = 0). If this new angle is 12°, what is the coefficient of
dynamic friction?
θ = 12°
∑Fy = 0 ∑Fx = 0
R – mg cos 12° = 0 Ff – mg sin 12° = 0
R = mg cos 12° Ff = mg sin 12°
Fd = μd R
μd = tan 12° = 0.213
mg sin 12° = μd mg cos 12°
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
EXAMPLE: A 100. N crate is to be y
dragged across the floor by an applied N F
force F = 60 N, as shown. The Ff 30°
coefficients of static and dynamic friction x
are 0.75 and 0.60, respectively. What is a
mg
the acceleration of the crate?
FBD, crate
SOLUTION:

F
FYI Since friction is proportional to
30° the normal force, be aware of
problems where an applied force
changes the normal force.
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
SOLUTION: y
Determine if the crate even moves. N F
Thus, find the maximum value of the Ff 30°
static friction, and compare it to the x
horizontal applied force: a
mg
FH = F cos(30) = 60 cos(30) = 52 N
The maximum static friction force is FBD, crate
Fs,max = 0.75R
The normal force is found from...
R + F sin(30) – mg = 0
R + 60 sin(30) – 98 = 0 R = 70
Fs,max = 0.75(70) = 52.5N
Crate will not move
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
EXAMPLE: If someone gives the crate a y
small push (of how much?) it will “break” N F
loose. What will its acceleration be then?
Ff 30°
SOLUTION: x
The horizontal applied force is still a
mg
F cos(30) = 60cos(30) = 52 N
The dynamic friction force is FBD, crate
Fd = μd N
The reaction force is still N = 70 N
Thus Fd = 0.60(70N) = 42 N
The crate will accelerate.
F cos 30° - Fd = ma
51.96 - 42 = (100 / 10)a
a = 0.996 m s-2
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Newton’s laws of motion – The third law
In words For every action force there is an equal and
opposite reaction force.
In symbols
FAB = -FBA Newton’s third law
FAB is the force on body A by body B.
FBA is the force on body B by body A.
In the big picture, if every force in the universe has a
reaction force that is equal and opposite, the sum of all
the forces in the whole universe is zero!
So why are there accelerations all around us?
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law
EXAMPLE: When you push on a door
with 10 N, the door pushes you back
the u r
with exactly the same 10 N, but in the do yo
or io n
opposite direction. Why does the door r ea s ’ c t
c ti
on
a
move, and not you?
SOLUTION: Even though the forces FBA FAB
are equal and opposite, they are
acting on different bodies. B
A A
· Each body acts in response only to the force
acting on it.
Topic 2: Mechanics FBE
2.2 – Forces
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law
NBT
EXAMPLE:
Consider a baseball resting on a
tabletop. Discuss each of the forces NTB
acting on the baseball, and the
associated reaction force.
SOLUTION: FEB
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law
We define a _________________________________
____________________________________________.
EXAMPLE: Three billiard balls interacting on a pool
table constitute a system.

The _______________________________________
____________________________________________.
For any ____________________________________!
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law
We define a system as a collection of more than one
body, mutually interacting with each other.
EXAMPLE: Three colliding billiard balls constitute a
system. Discuss all of the internal forces.
The internal force pairs only exist while the balls
are in contact with one another.
Note that a blue force and a red force act on the white
ball. The white ball responds only to those two forces.
Note that a single white force acts on the red ball. The
red ball responds only to that single force.
Note that a single white force acts on the blue ball. The
blue ball responds only to that single force.
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.2 – Forces
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law
We define a system as a collection of more than one
body, mutually interacting with each other.
EXAMPLE: Three billiard balls interacting on a pool
table constitute a system. Describe the external forces.

___________________________________________
______________________________ (not each other).
For billiard balls, these forces are the _________, the
_________________, and the ___________________.