Properties of heart muscles,

valves & Blood Vessels (II)

Dr Gauhar Hussain
Assistant Professor of Physiology

College of Medicine, Dawadimi

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 Objectives
1. Describe the heart valves and their functions.

2. Describe blood vessels , its types and functions.

3. Describe the role of venous valves in prevention of backflow.

4. Describe the mechanisms of transcapillary exchange (diffusion and filtration)

listing the factors influencing diffusion and stating the relationship between
net pressure and fluid movement.

5. State Starling's hypothesis for formation of interstitial fluid. Define oncotic

and hydrostatic pressure and list the factors influencing capillary hydrostatic
pressure.

6. Explain the contribution of the lymphatics to the control of interstitial fluid

volume.
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 Heart Valves
• Ensure unidirectional blood flow through the heart.

• Close and open passively with pressure gradient forces.

• Atrioventricular (AV) valves lie between the atria and the

ventricles . AV valves prevent backflow into the atria when
ventricles contract

• Semilunar valves (half moon shaped)present in blood

vessels coming out of heart. Semilunar valves prevent
backflow of blood into the ventricles
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 4 Heart Valves (2 AV; 2SL)
Mitral valve Tricuspid valve
(bicuspid)
• RA to RV
• LA to LV

Pulmonary or pulmonic valve

Aortic valve
• RV to pulmonary trunk
• LV to aorta
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Atrioventricular Valve Function

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Semilunar Valve Function

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 Blood vessel
• All blood vessels except

capillaries have 3 coats -

(1) Tunica Interna ( INTIMA) - innermost

coat, consists of single layer of endothelial
cells

(2) Tunica Media (MUSCLE ) - middle coat,

circular smooth muscle and Elastic tissue

(3) Tunica Externa (ADVENTITIA) -

outermost layer of connective tissue made
up of collagen and fibroblast

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 Vascular System
• Closed system of blood vessels that carries blood
away from the heart, transports it to the tissues and
returns it to the heart.

Distribution Of Blood Volume At Rest

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 Division of Vascular System
• Arterial System : a distribution system

• Venous system :a collection system.

• System of capillary network: microcirculation as a

diffusion and filtration system

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 Physiological classification of blood
vessels
ORGANISATION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM

(A)Windkessel vessels

(B)Distribution vessels

(C) Resistance vessels

(D)Exchange vessels

(E) Capacitance vessels, and

(F) Shunt (thoroughfare) vessels.

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 Elastic arteries
(Windkessel vessels)
• These are the vessels which are highly ELASTIC
(Windkessel means elastic reservoir).

• Elastic tissue more than smooth muscle.

• High compliance – walls stretch and expand
(Distensible OR Strechable) in response to
pressure without tearing.
• Vasoconstriction – decrease in lumen diameter
• Vasodilation – increase in lumen diameter
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 Elastic arteries
(Windkessel vessels)
For example, aorta,
pulmonary artery and their
larger branches
Largest diameter but walls
relatively thin
Help propel blood forward
while ventricles relaxing
Also known as conducting
arteries – conduct blood to
medium-sized arteries
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 Distribution vessels
(Muscular arteries)
Tunica media contains more smooth muscle and
fewer elastic fibers than elastic arteries
Walls relatively thick
Capable of great vasoconstriction/ vasodilatation to
adjust rate of blood flow

Most of peripheral arteries: For example, brachial ,

radial, ulnar, popliteal.

Maintains the forward steady flow to arterioles

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 Resistance vessels
• The vessels which offer resistance to blood flow
towards the capillaries, therefore, also called as pre-
capillary resistance vessels.

• For example: arterioles, metarterioles and pre-

capillary sphincters.

• Smooth muscle is more than Elastic tissue

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 Resistance vessels
 Metarteriole has precapillary sphincter which
monitors blood flow into capillary
 Sympathetic innervation and local chemical
mediators can alter diameter ,blood flow and
resistance.

 Vasoconstriction can raise

blood pressure & decreases the blood flow

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 Capacitance vessels
• Most of our blood volume is carried in the veins (64%).

• Veins can expand to accommodate large volume of blood

per unit length.

• simply by change in their luminal shape

• Have smooth muscles and can be controlled by myogenic

factors (vasoconstrictors or vasodilators)

• For example, venules and venous compartments.

• Not designed to withstand high pressure

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 Capacitance vessels
•Many veins, particularly those in
the arms and legs, have one-way
valves.
•Each valve consists of two flaps/
cusps or leaflets (folds on tunica
interna).
•The venae cavae, portal veins
and cerebral veins do not possess
functional valves
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 Role of venous valves
in prevention of backflow
• Blood flow in the veins by the muscle pump.
When the muscles contract the blood within the
veins is squeezed up the vein and the valves open.

• Blood, as it moves toward the heart, pushes the

cusps open like a pair of one-way swinging doors.

• When the muscle is at rest, the cusps are pushed

closed/ the valves close helping to prevent the
backward flow of blood.

• The regular opening and closing of valves

prevents backflow.

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 Shunt or Thoroughfare vessels
• These are the vessels which bypass the capillaries.

• These vessels directly connect the metarterioles with

venules,

• therefore, also called as Arterio­venous shunts (A-V

shunts) or 'A-V anastomoses'.

• Anastomoses are Union of the branches of 2 or more

arteries supplying the same body region
• Provide alternate routes – collateral circulation
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 Exchange vessels
• These vessels allow exchange of gases and nutritive
substances across them

• Capillaries = 5 % of blood volume.

• They consists of only single layer of endothelial cells

• Area of circulation where exchange at capillary takes

place is called MICRO-CIRCULATION.

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 Types of capillaries
• 3 types

1. Continuous: endothelial ring except at

intercellular cleft of 4-10 nm ,

• Sites: most of the body capillaries are of this type.

2. Fenestrated: small passageways (Fenestration or

PORES of 20-100 nm)

• Sites: renal glomeruli, vasa recta, endocine, exocrine

glands, intestinal villi.

3. Sinusoids: endothelial layer has large gaps ≥ 400 nm

• allow exchange of large protein molecules and RBCs

• Sites: bone marrow, liver and spleen

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 Trans-capillary exchange
Movement of substances between blood and interstitial fluid

• 3 basic methods at Capillary bed

1. Diffusion: 
• Small molecules, such as gases, lipids, and lipid-soluble molecules, can
diffuse directly (simple diffusion) through the membranes of the endothelial
cells of the capillary wall.

• Glucose, amino acids, and ions use transporters to move through specific
channels in the membrane by facilitated diffusion. They may also leave the
blood through intercellular clefts.

• Larger molecules can pass through the pores of fenestrated capillaries, and even
large plasma proteins can pass through the great gaps in the sinusoids.
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 Factors affecting diffusion
1. Distance- the greater the distance, the longer the time required

2. Size of the gradient- the larger the concentration gradient, faster the diffusion
proceeds

3. Molecular size- greater the molecular size i.e. molecular weight, slower will be the
diffusion

4. Lipid solubility- lipid soluble molecules diffuses rapidly through the lipid layer of
the membrane

J = Rate of diffusion
D = diffusion co-efficient (temp, charge, solubility, size / √mol wt)

J=- D.A (C i-C 0) A = cross sectional area

(Ci-Co) = concentration difference
T T = thickness of the membrane (gradient)

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 Trans-capillary exchange
Movement of substances between blood and interstitial fluid

• 3 basic methods at Capillary bed

2. Transcytosis: Some large proteins in blood plasma can move into and out of
the endothelial cells packaged within vesicles by endocytosis and exocytosis. 

3. Bulk flow :The mass movement of fluids into and out of capillary beds
requires a transport mechanism far more efficient than mere diffusion. Volumes
of fluid move from an area of higher pressure in a capillary bed to an area of
lower pressure in the tissues via filtration. In contrast, the movement of fluid
from an area of higher pressure in the tissues into an area of lower pressure in
the capillaries is reabsorption.

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 Fluid filtration across
capillaries
• Starling’s hypothesis states that the fluid movement due to filtration
across the wall of a capillary is dependent on the balance between the
hydrostatic pressure gradient and the oncotic pressure gradient across
the capillary.

• Starling’s forces are :four primary forces that determine whether fluid
will move out of the blood into the interstitial fluid or in the opposite
direction.
1. Capillary hydrostatic pressure (Pc) = HP

2. Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (Pif)

3. Capillary colloid osmotic pressure(πp)=COP Net Filtration Pressure

4. Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure (πif) NFP = Pc – Pif - πp + πif
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 Fluid filtration across
capillaries
Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure and Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic

pressure (around each 3 mm each)– cancel each other and forces in

capillary usually decides the fluid exchange at tissue level.

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Oncotic and hydrostatic pressure
• Hydrostatic pressure:
• Exerted by blood pressure against the inner capillary
wall (BP)
• Promotes formation of tissue fluid.

• Oncotic pressure:
• Colloid osmotic pressure due to plasma colloids is also
called ONCOTIC pressure
• Exerted by plasma proteins.
• Promotes fluid reabsorption into circulatory system.
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Transport of substances through the
lymphatics
90 % of
Filtered fluid is
reabsorbed on venous
end

Remaining 10% of
filtered fluid is returned
to circulation via
lymphatics

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Contribution of the lymphatics to the
control of interstitial fluid volume.
As the interstitial fluid begins to accumulate, it is picked up and

removed by tiny .The activity of the lymphatic pump depends on:

• Smooth muscle in lymph vessel cause them to contract

• External compression also contributes to lymphatic pump

Factors which increase flow of lymph= Lymphagogues

• Increase in capillary permiability

• Decrease in oncotic pressure

IF hydrostatic pressure Lymph Flow

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 Reference:

• Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology:

13th edition

Thank You

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