Larry Brown

Tom Holme

www.cengage.com/chemistry/brown

Chapter 4
Stoichiometry

Jacqueline Bennett • SUNY Oneonta

Chapter Objectives
• Describe the chemical composition of gasoline.

• Write balanced chemical equations for the combustion of

fuels.

• Calculate the amount of product expected from a chemical

reaction, given the amounts of reactants used.

• Calculate the amounts of reactants needed in a chemical

reaction to produce a specified amount of product.

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Chapter Objectives
• Identify a limiting reagent and calculate the amount of product
formed from a nonstoichiometric mixture of reactants.

• Calculate the percentage yield of a chemical reaction.

• Identify at least two common additives in gasoline and explain

why they are used.

3
Gasoline and Other Fuels
• Gasoline is a very complex mixture of compounds, but
contains predominantly alkanes.

• Alkanes are hydrocarbons where the carbon atoms are

linked together with single bonds.

• Hydrocarbons are compounds composed only of hydrogen

and carbon.

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Alkanes

• Alkanes have the general

formula CnH2n+2 where n is
an integer.

• The five smallest straight

chain alkanes.

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Alkanes

• The next five straight chain

alkanes

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Isomers
• Isomers are compounds
that have the same
chemical formula but are
connected differently.

• Three isomers of
pentane, C5H12.

• One straight chain

• Two branched chains

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Octane: Complete Combustion

• Octane is used as a simplified

model for gasoline.

• Complete combustion of
octane with excess oxygen
produces carbon dioxide and
water.

• The stoichiometric ratio

between octane and oxygen is
2:25.

• The stoichiometric ratio

between carbon dioxide and
water is 16:18.
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Octane: Incomplete Combustion
• Incomplete combustion occurs
when the amount of oxygen is
limited.

• The products are

carbon monoxide and
water.

• The stoichiometric ratio

between octane and oxygen is
2:17.

• The stoichiometric ratio

between carbon monoxide and
water is 16:18.
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Octane: Combustion
• Complete and incomplete combustion both occur with the
relative amounts of each determined by:

• Ratio of fuel to oxygen

• Engine temperature

• Engine tuning

• Engineers help control these factors to maximize fuel

efficiency.

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Fundamentals of Stoichiometry
• Stoichiometry is a term used to describe quantitative
relationships in chemistry.

• “How much?” of a product is produced or reactant is

consumed.

• Balanced chemical equation needed.

• Conversion between mass or volume to number of moles

frequently needed.

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Ratios from a Balanced Chemical Equation

• Mole ratios are obtained from the coefficients in the balanced chemical
reaction.

• 1 mol CH4 : 2 mol O2 : 1 mol CO2 : 2 mol H2O

• These ratios can be used in solving problems:

1 mol CH 4 2 mol H 2 O
or
2 mol O 2 1 mol CH 4
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Example Problem 4.1
• In the combustion of methane, how many moles of O2 are
required if 6.75 mol of CH4 is to be completely consumed?

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Ratios from a Balanced Chemical Equation

• This flow diagram illustrates the various steps involved in

solving a typical reaction stoichiometry problem.

• No different than unit conversion

• Usually more than one conversion is necessary

• Write all quantities with their complete units

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Example Problem 4.2
• How many grams of water can be produced if sufficient
hydrogen reacts with 26.0 g of oxygen?

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Ratios from a Balanced Chemical Equation

• Solution to Problem 4.2 using the stoichiometry problem flow

diagram, Figure 4.3.

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Example Problem 4.3
• If we have 153 g of S8 and an excess of phosphorus, what
mass of P4S3 can be produced in the reaction shown?

8P4  3S8  8P4 S3

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Limiting Reactants
• In many chemical reactions, one reactant is often exhausted
before the other reactants. This reactant is the limiting
reactant.

• Limiting reactant is determined using stoichiometry.

• The limiting reactant limits the quantity of product

produced.

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Limiting Reactants

• Reaction between 6 H2 and

2H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) 
 2H 2O(g) 6 O2 will produce 6 H2O.

• 6 H2 can produce 6 H2O.

• 6 O2 can produce 12 H2O.

• H2 is limiting reactant.

• 3 O2 left over.

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Limiting Reactants
• In many cases, we manipulate the amounts of reactants to
ensure that one specific compound is the limiting reactant.

• For example, a more expensive or scarce reagent is

usually chosen to be the limiting reagent.

• Other times, it is best to have a stoichiometric mixture (equal

ratio of moles) to prevent waste.

• For example, rocket fuel is designed so that no mass is left

over, which would add unnecessary weight to the rocket.

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Example Problem 4.4
• A solution of hydrochloric acid contains 5.22 g of HCl. When it
is allowed to react with 3.25 g of solid K2CO3, the products are
KCl, CO2, and H2O. Which reactant is in excess?

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Example Problem 4.5
• If 28.2 g of P4 is allowed to react with 18.3 g of S8, which is
the limiting reactant?

8P4  3S8  8P4 S3

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Example Problem 4.6
• If 45.0 kg of methanol is allowed to react with 70.0 kg of
isobutene, what is the maximum mass (theoretical yield) of
MTBE that can be obtained?

CH 3OH  (CH 3 )2 C=CH 2  (CH 3 )3 COCH 3

Methanol Isobutene MTBE

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Example Problem 4.7
• The solid fuel rockets of the space shuttle are based on the
following reaction between ammonium perchlorate and
aluminum:
3NH 4 ClO 4 (s)  3Al(s)  Al2O 3 (s)  AlCl3 (g)  3NO(g)  6H 2O(g)

• If either reactant is in excess, unnecessary mass will be

added to the shuttle, so a stoichiometric mixture is desired.
What mass of each reactant should be used for every
kilogram of the fuel mixture?

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Theoretical Yield
• The maximum mass of a product that can be obtained in a
reaction is determined by the limiting reactant.

• Determine which reactant is the limiting reactant.

• Calculate the mass of product that can be made from the

limiting reactant. This mass is the theoretical yield.

• In stoichiometric mixtures, however, both reactants are

consumed completely, so either could be considered the
limiting reactant.

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Theoretical and Percent Yields
• Many factors determine the amount of desired product
actually produced in a reaction.

• Temperature of the reaction

• The possibility of side reactions

• Further reaction of the product

• Time

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Theoretical and Percentage Yields

 actual yield 
Percentage Yield =    100%
 theoretical yield 

• Reaction efficiency is measured with percentage

yield.

• The mass of product obtained is the actual yield.

• The ideal mass of product obtained from

   calculation is the theoretical yield.
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Example Problem 4.8
• In a laboratory experiment, a student heats 42.0 g of NaHCO3
and determines that 22.3 g of Na2CO3 is formed. What is the
percentage yield of this reaction?
2NaHCO 3 (s) heat
 Na 2CO 3 (s)  CO 2 (g)  H 2O(g)

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Solution Stoichiometry

• For reactions occurring in solution, the concentration and

volume of reactants and products are often used instead of
mass to solve solution stoichiometry problems.

• n = number of moles; M = mol/L; V = L

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Example Problem 4.9
• If 750.0 mL of 0.806 M NaClO is mixed with excess ammonia,
how many moles of hydrazine can be formed?

NaClO(aq)  2NH 3 (aq)  N 2 H 4 (aq)  NaCl(aq)  H 2O(l )

• If the final volume of the resulting solution is 1.25 L, what will

be the molarity of hydrazine?

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Solution Stoichiometry
• A titration is a common laboratory technique that uses
solution stoichiometry.

• A solution-phase reaction is carried out under controlled

conditions so that the amount of one reactant can be
determined with high precision.

• An indicator is a dye added to a titration to indicate when

the reaction is complete.

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Solution Stoichiometry

1. A solution of one of the reactants (A) is added to a burette.

2. The burette is positioned above a flask containing the second reactant (B).
3. The burette is used to add A to the flask in a controlled manner; volume is
determined from initial and final burette readings.
4. The reaction is complete when the indicator changes color.

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Example Problem 4.10
• If 24.75 mL of 0.503 M NaOH solution is used to titrate a
15.00 mL sample of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, what is the
concentration of the acid?

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Alternative Fuels and Fuel Additives

• Fuel additives are added to gasoline to improve engine performance,

reduce undesirable engine emissions, and reduce dependence on
imported petroleum products.

• Some additives, oxygenates , increase the oxygen content of gasoline

and gasoline containing them is called an oxygenated fuel.

• Ensure more complete combustion by reducing emitted carbon

monoxide, hydrocarbons, and soot.

• Gasoline containing at least 2% oxygen by weight is call reformulated

gasoline (RFG), which is mandatory in some areas with severe
pollution.

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Alternative Fuels and Fuel Additives

• Additives improve engine performance by improving the

octane rating.

• Higher octane rating delivers better performance and has

lower “knocking”.

• Knock is the result of premature cylinder ignition when

gasoline-air mixture is compressed.

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Alternative Fuels and Fuel Additives

• Tetraethyl lead, used

until the 1970s,
increased octane rating.

• Poisoned the surfaces

of catalytic converters.

• Discontinued due to
the toxicity of lead.

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Alternative Fuels and Fuel Additives

• MTBE, methyl tert-butyl

ether, is an oxygenate.

• As much as 15% MTBE

can be used in gasoline.

• Possible health concerns

have led to it being
banned in some areas.

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Alternative Fuels and Fuel Additives

• Ethanol is another oxygenate.

• Produced from crops such as corn, barley, and wheat.

• Gasoline containing 10% ethanol can be burned in modern

automobiles.

• Gasoline containing 85% ethanol can be burned in

specially designed engines. At this concentration, it is
considered an alternative fuel rather than an oxygenate.

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