Epistemology: Dr. Mehboob Bukhari

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EPISTEMOLOGY

Dr. Mehboob Bukhari


EPISTEMOLOGY
• Philosophical activity directed to the questions: What and how the
knower knows?
• It studies the sources, nature, limit and validity of knowledge claims
• It develops the standards of analysis and development of knowledge
judgments
• Common sense understanding about it knowing by trial and error. Is it
more systematic, rigorous and dependable?
• ‘Justified true belief’, Plato says. Not opinion, it must have reasons, blind
and man with vision
• Compare Absolute Knowledge (Certainty) – Probable Knowledge
Sources of Knowledge
• Empiricism = aposteriori = after Experience = five
senses
• Rationalism = apriori = before experience = self
evident principles
• Intuitionism = intuition
• Authoritarinaism = other than self like State, Family,
Church etc.
EMPIRICISM
• High probable knowledge is a stable and realistic foundation for
knowledge accessible to human beings.
• Unreasonable to seek absolute all inclusive knowledge.
• We have practical, slower but dependable from of knowledge.
• Probably true, certainty is not guaranteed.
• Knowledge is a posteriori – post experiential – acquired through
experience
• Show me, how did you know? Etc.
• Two aspects
• Distinction between knower (subject) and thing known (object)
• Public verifiability: experience of the known must be repeatable by
other people
ASSUMPTIONS
• Empiricism depends
1. Principle of Regularity (Uniformity): Nature is orderly. Things in
nature behave regularly. Probable behavior of things becomes
predictable
2. Principle of Resemblance / IDENTICAL: (Human ability to extract
likeness from distinct objects) experience of identical things allow
us logically to make generalizations about things.
Enable prediction
JOHN LOCKE
• John Locke: Experience by five senses:
• Human mind is a ‘tabula rasa’ smooth wax tablet. Sensory
impressions are transcribed.
• Human mind receives, stores and combines different sensations
• Empiricism in scientific way: a neuro-chemical process. External
objects stimulate sense organs, cause change in brain / mind
OBJECTIONS
1. Meaning of experience is ambiguous. Stimulation of senses,
sensation plus judgment. Nothing is self-evident, just Interpreted.
2. Human senses are limited, deceptive and imperfect. Separation of
fact from fancy
3. No certainty. Probable knowledge is questionable knowledge. We
do not have unbroken sequence of sensory experiences.
RATIONALISM
• Absolute and reliable knowledge emanates from mind not from
sensory experience. Knowledge exists within us in the form of rational
abstract principles. Rational intuition is the real world. Not subjective.
Truth and falsity in ideas not in things.
• Absolute and certain knowledge
• Apriori: Self evident propositions: clear and distinct to mind. Certain.
Human beings know the self evident ideas residing in mind. They are
neither created nor learnt from external sources.
• A priori ideas contain in human mind (container of ideas). Mind
reasons in this sense.
• Since Human mind comprehends analytic principles; therefore they must
exist – true and real. Otherwise mind must be incapable of knowing
them.
• Experience is understood in this light.
• Plato: People remember what they already know, not learn.
• Learn means discovering truth unknown previously? But how will he
recognize it? Already known knowledge.
• Experience stimulates memory.
• Basic reality is composed of two: World of Principles existing changelessly
and absolutely for everyone for all times
• Orderly process of rational thought allows us access to knowledge. With
Rational intuition people can know the Forms: We can conceive them
• Rene Descartes
• Foundation of knowledge on certainty. Applied rational doubt. Everything
will be doubted. Senses, tradition, feelings, beliefs, dreams,
hallucinations, God could deceive me, one thing remains indubitable –
the act of doubting. My existence as doubting self – thinking self – je
pense donc je suis
• This is clear and distinct idea, the doubting self, is the foundation of
knowledge.
OBJECTIONS
• All humans have not accepted the existence of self evident ideas.
Plato and Descartes gave different theories of rationalism/ the basic
truths?
• Descartes cogito does not take us further but takes help from other
theories. Principles are self evident to a culture not universality
• Rational thought is impractical in world affairs. Abstractness and
downplaying sensory experience is criticized.
• Vast changes in the world and increase human knowledge cannot be
explained in this theory. Many self evident ideas were changed later
on.
INSTITUITIONISM
• How does the charismatic man acquire knowledge?
Mysticism / revelation
• Reliable source of knowledge is intuition, not reason,
experience. Direct awareness. No systematic mental activity.
Synthesis of self and reality
• Feeling of being sure, ‘peak experience’ Maslow
• Inner light, unnamable name etc. indescribable feeling of
ones, It is unfair, incommunicable
CRITICISM
• Inconsistent: no standard which is knowledge and not
• Incommunicable:
AUTHORITARIANISM
• Rely on outside the individual: the state, family, church
• Focuses on sources rather than on method by which knowledge is
acquired
TRADITION
• Humans are learning social animal. They learn what is formally taught and
informally communicated.
• Socialization / enculturalization; skills, beliefs etc. beliefs so learned become
/operates authoritative sources
• If individuals were to start from the scratch, no development of knowledge
• Accumulated knowledge becomes cultures’ tradition.
• Tradition expresses in standardization by which things are measured. It coercive
effect in knowing themselves and their environment
• Tradition provides continuity, stability, a base for correction that transcends one
individual.
• Tradition’s superiority emanates from the survival of the fittest presumption.
MAJORITY OPINION
• Most reliable source of knowledge
• What is true for majority is true for individual
• Interestingly: Knowledge depended on minority. People believed that
Earth is flat or center etc.
EXPERT OPINION AND PRESTIGE
• In complex world, we accept our dependence on ‘experts, position to
know’
• Author’s competency and authority on the subject.
• It is not intrinsic merit. Encroachment in another area.
CHRISMATIC PERSONALITY
• Dynamic ‘unexplainable personalities, intangible/indefinable power.
• Fountain head of knowledge power right. Truth and right are
embodied in the person. Source and proof of both M.A Jinnah, Hitler,
Gandhi
• Knowledge is attained through one’s surrender to charismatic
authority. Emotional commitment.
• Why charismatic authority’s view is truer, we are bound to raise non
charismatic criterion.
OBJECTIONS
• Misplaced: not all cultures survived, surviving cultures have
different knowledge and practices
• No new knowledge: innovative knowledge is oppressed.
Bruno was burned modern view of universe

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